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INTRODUCTORY GEOGRAPHY 



CALIFORNIA STATE SERIES 

INTRODUCTORY GEOGRAPHY 

TAEE AND McMUREY 

REVISED BY 

THE STATE TEXT-BOOK COMMITTEE 

AND APPROVED BY 

THE STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION 




A Native Daughter 



SACRAMENTO 
W. W. Shannon, Superintendent of State Printing 

1910 






<*;* 



Copyright, 1904, 1910, 



THE PEOPLE OF THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA. 



Copykigiit, 1900, 190T, 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



In the compilation of this work, certain matter from the Elementary- 
Geography by Kalph S. Tarr and Frank McMurry has been used. All 
such matter is protected by the copyright entries noted above. 



APR 15 1911 



1 e — 50 m — 3 '10 

<§CI.A265250 



PREFACE 

This is the first of a series of geographies ; the more 
advanced treatment deals at greater length with the 
world and its inhabitants. Since Part I of the present 
volume is a radical innovation, it perhaps needs an 
explanatory foreword. 

Necessity of Home Geography. — The final basis 
-for all study of geography is actual experience. Yet 
text-books on that subject rarely treat Home Geography 
at all, and those that do, devote but few pages to it. 
This subject should, we think, receive far more careful 
attention. 

Necessity of Other Basal Notions. — Home ex- 
perience alone, however, cannot offer a complete basis 
for the later study of geography, because no one locality 
presents all the features required. From this it happens 
that the best books have contained some definitions and 
illustrations, as of mountain, river, valley, harbor, and 
factory, and have planned to build the later text with 
the ideas these gave as a foundation. Such conceptions 
are certainly necessary in the early part of geography ; 
but mere definitions fail to produce vivid, accurate pic- 
tures. The average pupil who has pursued geography 
for a year has little notion of the great importance of 
soil, of what a mountain or a river really is, of the value 
of good trade routes, and why a vessel cannot find a 
harbor wherever it will cast anchor along: the coast. 



VI PREFACE 

Yet such ideas are the proper basis for the study of 
geography in the higher grades. The fact that they 
are so often wanting is proof that our geography still 
lacks foundation. 

How these Needs are Met. — The first 110 pages of 
this volume attempt to supply this foundation by treating 
first, such common things as soil, hills, valleys, industries, 
climate, and government, which are part of every child's 
environment; and secondly, other features, as mountains, 
rivers, lakes, and the ocean, which, though absent from 
many localities, are still necessary as a preparation for 
later study. Definitions, however, are not relied upon 
for giving the child this extra knowledge, but detailed 
descriptions and discussions instead. This by no means 
involves neglect of the child's own environment from the 
time the unfamiliar matter is introduced, for through- 
out the geographies home experiences are frequently 
used. We believe that our plan gives a fuller guarantee 
of fitness for advanced study than has heretofore been 
furnished. 

Relationship to Mankind. — According to the defi- 
nition of geography, — which treats of the relation be- 
tween man and the earth, — a hill or a lake is worthy 
of mention only because it bears a relation to us, the 
men upon the earth ; considered by itself it is not a part 
of geography. Therefore each chapter which takes up 
one of the above subjects, either closes with the bearing 
of the given topic upon mankind, or it deals with the 
human relationship throughout. 

Earth as a Whole. — The most difficult portion of 
our task has been that which presents the Earth as a 
Whole. That a bird's-eye view should be given at an 



PREFACE Vll 

early period in the child's instruction is not questioned; 
but it is not easy, in limited space, to support the prin- 
cipal facts with sufficient detail to produce vivid and 
interesting pictures. The authors have found that some 
topics commonly included in the early study, such, for 
instance, as latitude and longitude, should be postponed. 
They have also found that many other minor subjects 
usually presented are comparatively irrelevant to the 
geographical knowledge necessary to a pupil. By setting 
these aside for the time, space has been secured for a 
physiographic basis, and for a fairly close sequence in 
tracing the effects of physical conditions upon plants 
and animals, and also upon mankind. Throughout each 
chapter much care has been taken to present a closely 
related chain of thought, and at the same time to keep 
the leading facts in their proper foreground. 

Suggestions for Further Home Study. — A study 
of books alone can never furnish an adequate knowl- 
edge of geography. Therefore it has been thought ex- 
pedient to add numerous suggestions at the end of each 
section, in order to remind both teacher and pupil of 
suitable excursions, experiments, etc., and to show at the 
same time the breadth of the subject. In this way physi- 
cal activity — the love of exercise — may be employed in 
the service of the study, and a habit of investigating the 
home environment encouraged. 

Frequent Reviews. — Believing in the value of fre- 
quent reviews, the authors have suggested review material 
in frequent comparisons and contrasts,- and in introducing 
new topics through others that have already been pre- 
sented. This method has been used throughout this 
book, and in the more advanced treatment. 



viii PREFACE 

Maps. — Contrary to the usual custom, the political maps 
include the principal physical features, so that any place is 
always seen in connection with its physiographic surround- 
ings. The colors have been so selected as to secure har- 
mony, and at the same time to show the boundaries clearly. 
Unimportant names are excluded, even where space might 
have permitted their introduction ; and, to an unusual 
degree, the size of print is proportionate to the importance 
of places, so that the names of leading divisions, cities, 
etc., can be distinguished at a glance. 

Illustrations. — The illustrations have been selected 
with great care to illustrate specific points; and for the 
sake of accuracy, photographs have in most cases been 
employed. They are not inserted merely for the purpose 
of entertainment, but in every case bear a direct relation- 
ship to the text. They are not intended as mere pictures, 
but as illustrations ; and being numbered and referred to 
frequently, they pay for their space by contributing mate- 
rially to the book's fund of instruction. 

Acknowledgments. — The photographs have been ob- 
tained from many sources ; the globe drawings were made 
by Mr. Murray of the Matthews-Northrup Company; and 
the other drawings were mostly prepared by Mr. C. W. 
Furlong, instructor in Cornell University. The maps 
have been prepared by the Matthews-Northrup Company 
of Buffalo, who have obtained an enviable reputation as 
map engravers for the Century Atlas. 

The authors of this book are responsible for any short- 
comings that it may prove to have. They have had the 
benefit of much criticism of the best sort. Space does 
not permit them to refer to each one who has kindly 
extended aid ; yet mention should be made of the ex- 



PREFACE ix 

ceedingly valuable criticisms and suggestions of Mr. Philip 
Emerson of the Cobbet School, Lynn, Mass. 

The State Text-book Committee is under obligations to 
the following parties for photographs : S. P. Co. ; S. F. 
0. ■& S. J. Ry. ; P. C. Steamship Co. ; State Fish Commis- 
sion; California Promotion Committee; Standard Oil Com- 
pany ; South Africa British Company ; Holt Mfg. Company ; 
Superintendents J. G. O'Neill, E. B. Wright, H. F. Pin- 
nell, James E. Reynolds, Belle S. Gribi, Florence Boggs, 
Hettie Irwin; Maud A. Minthorn; D. A. Hunger; L. E. 
Chenoweth; George E. Knox; Hajor J. A. Driffill; Lewis E. 
Aubury; Senators E. S. Birdsall, W. F. Price; Warden 
W. H. Reilly ; also to Chambers of Commerce of Sacra- 
mento, Stockton, San Jose, Fresno, Oakland, San Diego, 
and the Sacramento Valley Development Association. 




Entrance to the Campus of the University of California. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 
PART I. HOME GEOGRAPHY 

PAGE 

Section I. The Soil 1 

Section II. Hills . . . ... . . .10 

Section III. Mountains 18 

Section IV. Valleys . 30 

Section V. Rivers 42 

Section VI. Ponds and Lakes . . . . . . .57 

Section VII. The Ocean 67 

Section VIII. The Air 77 

Section IX. Industry and Commerce ..... 87 

Section X. Government 99 

Section XI. Maps . . 109 

References to Books, etc 115 

PART II. THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Section I. Form and Size of the Earth ..... 119 
Its Form, 119. Size of the Earth, 121. 

Section II. Daily Motion of the Earth and its Results . 123 
The Axis and Poles, 123. The Equator, 124. Gravity, 
124. Sunrise and Sunset, 125. Day and Night, 125. 

Section III. The Zones 128 

Boundaries of the Zones, 128. Torrid Zone, 129. Tem- 
perate Zones, 129. Frigid Zones, 130. Hemispheres, 131. 
Section IV. Heat within the Earth and its Effects . . 132 
Heat in Mines, 132. Melted Rock, 133. The Earth's 
Crust, 133. Cause of Mountains, 134. Cause of Conti- 
xi 



xii TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

nents and ocean basins, 134. change in the level of 
the Land, 135. 
Section V. The Continents and Oceans . . . . 137 

Land and Water, 13-7. The Continents, 137. North Amer- 
ica, 138. South America, 138. Eurasia, 139. Africa, 
142. Australia, 143. The Oceans, 143. The Arctic 
and Antarctic, 143. The Atlantic, 144. The Pacific, 
144. The Indian, 144. The Ocean Bottom, 144. Moun- 
tains in the Oceans, 145. Coral Islands, 145. 

Section VI. Maps 149 

Section VII. North America . . . . . . . 151 

Physical Geography, 151. Political Divisions, 152. 

Section VIII. The United States 153 

Section IX. New England ........ 154 

Names, 154. Seaports, 154. Fishing, 155. Farming, 155. 
Quarrying, 156. Lumbering, 157. Manufacturing, 158. 
Commerce, 159. 

Section X. Middle Atlantic States 161 

The Coast Line, 161. The Seaports, 161. Reasons for the 
Great Size of New York City, 161. Cities Near by, 
161. Water Route to the Interior, 162. Lumbering, 
163. Farming, 163. Salt, 164. Manufacturing, 164. 
Commerce, 165. Reasons why Philadelphia has become 
a Great City, 165. Cities Near by, 165. Farming, 165. 
Iron, 166. Coal, 166. Oil and Gas, 168. Commerce, 
168. Other Cities, 168. Baltimore, 168. Washington, 
168. Virginia and West Virginia, 169. 

Section XL Southern States 171 

Belief, 171. Coal and Iron, 172. Cotton, 172. Ranch- 
ing, 173. Sugar and Rice, 174. Fruits, 174. Lumber- 
ing, 175. Manufacturing, 175. New Orleans, 176. 
Other Seaports, 177. Oklahoma, 177. Climate, 177. 

Section XII. Central States 180 

Raw Products, 180. The Manufacturing and Trade Cen- 
ters, 183. Review and Comparisons, 188. 

Section XIII. Western States 190 

Reasons why there are so Few People, 190. Wonderful 



TABLE OF CONTENTS Xlll 

PAGE 

Scenery, 192. Mining, 193. Ranching, 196. The Desert, 

196. Irrigation, 197. Fruit Raising, 198. Industries 

along the pacific coast, 198. the clties op the pacific 

Slope, 200. 

Section XIV. Alaska 203 

Section XV. Canada and Other Countries North of the 

United States . . . . . . . . . 205 

Canada and Newfoundland, 205. Industries, 205. Cities, 

207. The Far North, 208. Islands North of North 

America, 209. 
Section XVI. Countries South of the United States . . 211 
Mexico and Central America, 211. The West Indies and 

Bermuda, 213. 

Section XVII. South America 216 

Relief, 216. Climate, 216. History, 218. Brazil, 218. 

Venezuela and Guiana, 220. La Plata Countries, 221. 

Andean Countries, 222. 

Section XVIII. Europe . . . . . .. . .225 

The British Isles, 225. Norse Countries, 229. Russia, 
231. Germany, 233. Holland, 234. Belgium, 236. 
France, 236. Spain and Portugal, 238. Italy, 240. 
Switzerland, 241. Austria-Hungary, 242. Greece, 243. 
Turkey, 244. 

Section XIX. Asia 250 

Physical Geography, 250. Southwestern Asia, 251. Sibe- 
ria, 254. The Chinese Empire and Korea, 255. Japan, 
257. India and Indo-China, 258. 

Section XX. Africa 263 

The Dark Continent, 263. Northern Africa, 264. Cen- 
tral Africa, 267. South Africa, 269. 

Section XXI. Australia, the East Indies, Philippines, and 

Other Islands of the Pacific 271 

Australia, 271. The East Indies, 274. The Philippine 
Islands, 275. Islands of the Pacific, 276. 

Section XXII. California Supplement .... 279 

Map Questions, 282. Extent, 285. Relief, 285. Drain- 
age, 287. Climate, 288. Industrial Development, 291. 



XIV 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Agriculture, 294. Fruit Raising, 297. Stock Raising, 
301. Manufacturing, 305. Mining, 308. Lumbering, 
310. Fisheries, 311. Commerce, 312. Cities, 313. Re- 
view Questions, 319. Appendix to Supplement, 321. 
Index to Supplement, 323. 



Books of Reference 



327 



Appendix — Tables of Area, Population, etc. 



333 




Public Playgrounds near Lincoln School, Santa Barbara. 



LIST OF MAPS 

FIGTTRE FACING PAGE 

91. to illustrate the meaning of maps . . . . 114 

119. The Hemispheres 149 

120. Mercator Map of the World 149 

121. Relief Map of North America .... On page 150 

123. North America 152 

124. United States 153 

126. New England . . .154 

132. Middle Atlantic States . . . . ' ■ . . 161 

140. Southern States . . . ... . . 171 

149. Central States 180 

157. Western States 190 

177. South America 216 

183. Europe . 225 

203. Asia 250 

214. Africa 263 

221. Australia, East Indies, Philippine Islands, and Islands 

of the Pacific . . . 271 

225. Railroad Map of California . . . . „ . 278 

227. California (Northern Section) 280 

228. California (Southern Section) 281 

229. Relief Map of California 283 

230. San Francisco and Vicinity . . . . . . . 284 

244. Los Angeles, San Diego, Santa Barbara and Vicinity . 299 




Mariposa " big trees " ; on the road to Yosemite Valley. Notice that the four- 
horse stagecoach is driven through a bole cut in the trunk of the tree. 



Paet I 
HOME GEOGRAPHY 



oXKc 



I. THE SOIL 

You have often played in the dirt. Did you ever stop 
to think what it is made of ? It was not always what it 
now is. You know that the wood in your desk was not 
always a part of the desk ; it used to be part of a tree, 
and has a long story to tell about itself before it was 
brought to your school. So all the dirt or soil that you 
have ever seen has a long story to tell about how it be- 
came what it is now. Let us see what that story is. 

When mud dries upon your hands and you rub them 
together, you can notice an unpleasant, gritty feeling. 
This is caused by the scraping together of hard bits of 
something in the soil. If you rub some of this dirt 
against a- smooth piece of glass, you can often hear it 
scratch the glass. This shows that these little bits must 
be very hard, for if they were not, they could not scratch 
anything so hard as glass. They must be even harder 
than a pin, for you cannot scratch glass with a pin. 

It will help you to find out what these bits are if you 
examine some sand. The grains in it are tiny bits of 
rock, large enough to be clearly seen. When they are 



2 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

rubbed against glass, they scratch it, because they are 
hard and sharp. 

Sand is made of rock that has been broken up into very 
fine pieces. Soil is also made of rock, but the pieces are 
finer still. The soil that you have seen, such as that in 
the school yard, or by the side of the walk, was once rock. 

Soil has been made from roch. 

Since soil is found almost everywhere, you may wonder 
how so much rock has been changed to it. The answer is 
not hard to find. Did you ever pound a brick up into 
bits until you made brick dust ? You can change a stone 
to dust in the same way. Break one into small bits and 
see how much it resembles dirt. 

Sometimes one sees men drilling holes into stone ; the tiny pieces 
that are broken off collect in and round the hole, and look much like 
dirt. When a grindstone is used to sharpen tools, small pieces of the 
stone are ground off, and if water is poured upon it, this dust makes 
the water muddy, just as soil would. 

Much rock has been changed to dirt by the rubbing of 
pieces of stone against one another. In this way tiny 
bits have been worn off, as chalk is worn away when 
rubbed against the blackboard, or slate pencils against the 
slate. Perhaps some of the dirt that you have seen has 
been made in this manner. Later you will learn about 
the glaciers which have caused much of this rubbing. 

The grinding of rochs together has made much soil. 

But this is not the only way in which rock has been 
changed into soil. Much of it has decayed and fallen to 
pieces as wood does. Yon know that, after a long time, 
stumps of trees, and the boards in sidewalks, grow so 
soft that they fall to pieces. Perhaps you have called 



THE SOIL 




Fig. 1. 
A decaying stump of a tree. 



it rotting, but this means the same as decaying. The pic- 
ture (Fig. 1) shows such a stump. 

Other things even harder than wood decay in much the 
same way, although per- 
haps more slowly. Hard 
nails, at first bright and 
shiny, decay until they 
become a soft, yellow 
rust. Iron pipes and tin 
pails rust until holes ap- 
pear in them and they 
leak. 

You may not have 
thought that stones also 
decay, but they do. The 
headstones in old grave- 
yards are often so crumbled that the letters can scarcely 
be read, and sometimes the stones have even fallen apart. 

The decay of rock may 
also be seen in old stone 
buildings, boulders, and 
rock cliffs. Have you 
ever noticed this ? 

Soil has been formed, 
also, by the decay of 
rocks. 

There are several things 
that help to cause this de- 
cay. All rocks have cracks 
in them (Fig. 2). Usually 
some of these are so large 
that they can be plainly seen; but there are many others so tiny that 
they cannot be seen without a magnifying glass. When it rains, the 




Fig. 2. 

A rocky cliff containing many cracks. 
Point to some of them. 



4 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

water steals into them, and by eating and rotting the rock, very slowly 
changes it to a powder. 

The water may also freeze in these cracks and pry the stone apart. 
If you have seen iron water pipes, or water pitchers, burst in cold 
weather, yon know how this is done. Some of the pieces of rock 
pried off in this way are very small, others quite large (Fig. 3). 




Fig. 3. 

Pieces of rock broken from a cliff by tbe weather. Can you also see the 
cracks in the rock of the cliff '? Find some broken pieces in Fig. 2. 

Plants help the water in this work. In search of food they push 
their hair-like roots into the cracks, and there remain until they grow 
so large that they also pry off pieces. 

The earthworms that you may often see after a heavy rain also help 
in crumbling the rock. In order to get food, they take soil into their 
bodies and grind the coarse bits together until they become very fine. 

Water stealing into the cracks causes rock to decay and 
crwmMe. Plants and earthworms also help to break it up. 



THE SOIL 5 

Rock changes to soil most rapidly near the surface ; for 
the rain, roots of plants, and earthworms can reach it 
more easily there than elsewhere. So the deeper into the 
earth one goes, the less the rock is changed (Fig. 4) ; and, 
no matter where you live, if you should dig deep enough, 
you would come to solid rock. 




Fig. 4. 
A section, as if the earth were sliced through, like a loaf of oread, so that the 
part helow the surface is seen . Tell what you see in this picture. Notice 
the roots of the tree on the left side. 

Figure 5 shows soil about one and one half feet deep. 
Sometimes there is much more than this, and men may 
even dig deep wells without finding rock ; but in many 
places there are only a few inches of soil, or, sometimes, 
not even enough to hide the rock. 

One reason for such differences in the depth of soil is that some 
rocks decay more easily than others. Another reason is that in some 
places the rain washes the bits away as fast as the rocks crumble. 
This may leave the rock quite bare in one place and make the soil 
very deep in another. 

There is solid rock beneath all soil. 



6 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



How different it would be if no rock had ever changed 
into soil ! There could then be no grass, flowers, or trees 
around your home, because they grow by means of the 
food that they get from the soil. 

Without grass there could be no cattle, horses, or sheep ; 
in fact, few animals such as are found upon the land could 
live ; for what would they eat ? What, then, could you 
yourself find to eat ? There would be no vegetables, no 




Fig. 5. 

A picture showing solid rock beneath the soil. Notice the cracks in the rock. 

bread, butter, and milk, and no meat. You see that, if 
there were no soil, few people could live ; so that the 
dirt under our feet is a very valuable substance. 

Without soil, few plants, animals, or people could live 
on the land. 

Soil is needed by plants because it holds water. They 
become thirsty as well as you. Where the dirt is only 
a few inches deep, it may dry out on hot summer days, 
and then the plants die ; but where it is deep, the roots 
may reach down several feet till they find damp earth. 



THE SOIL 



It is surprising how long the roots of some small plants are 
(Fig. 6). For example, the clover in the picture is less than a foot high, 
but its roots are longer than you are tall. They reach so deep down 
that even in dry weather the clover is green while other plants, with 
shorter roots, are withered and dry. Some trees push their roots 
down a greater distance still. Can 
you find out how long the roots of 
any weeds are ? 

The soil holds food, as well 
as water, for plants. In it is 
found something which plants 
need, and which they take up 
through their roots ; it is a part 
of the soil itself, and is called 
plant food. Each blade of grass 
and each limb of a tree contains 
some of it ; and when a piece 
of wood is burned, some of this 
food is left behind in the ashes. 

Every person even has a 
quantity of it in his body; your 
bones and teeth are partly made 
of it. But you did not take 
it directly from the soil; the 
plants took it for }^ou, and you 
received it from them in flour 
and other foods that you have 
eaten." 




Fig. 6. 

Some of the roots of the clover 
that the hoy is picking have 
reached out into the air 
through the side of the hank. 
They are seeking water. 



Soil furnishes water and food to -plants. 

All plants do not need the same kind of food any more 
than all animals do. Horses eat hay and grain, while 
dogs eat meat; so some plants need one kind of food, 



8 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

others another. These different kinds of plant food are 
found in the different kinds of soil, of which there are 
very many. 

For example, some soils are fine, while others are coarse, because 
some rocks have crumbled to finer bits than others. Then, too, there 
are many kinds of rock, such as granite, marble, and sandstone; and 
when they decay they make different kinds of soil. 

In some places great numbers of plants have grown up and died. 
During their growth they took substances from the air, as well as 
from the soil, and when they died and decayed they returned some 
of these to the soil. These plant remains have become mingled with 
the soil, making it dark and sometimes almost black. In some places 
this dark-colored layer may be several feet deep, as in forests, or in 
swamps, where plants have been growing and decaying for hundreds 
of years. This is an excellent soil for farming, because it produces 
large crops. 

There are many different hinds of soil. 

Soil that has much plant food in it is said to be rich or 
fertile; if it has little, it is said to be poor or sterile. The 
plants are taking away some of this food ; they are really 
robbing the soil. But when weeds and trees fall and 
decay on the spot where they grew, they pay back what 
they took away. In fact, some of this food is returned to 
the earth every autumn when the leaves fall from the trees. 

But if plants are carried away from the spot where 
they grew, there is danger lest fertile land shall be robbed 
of so much plant food that it will become sterile. Now 
this often happens ; for farmers send away their wheat to 
make flouf, and haul their corn, hay, and oats to market. 
Some farmers have done this for so many years that they 
are no longer able to support their families on their land, 
but have been obliged to move away to find other farms 
where the soil has not been robbed of its plant food. 



THE SOIL 9 

The wise farmer takes care to put some plant food back upon the 
soil to pay for what he has taken, so that he may continue to raise 
good crops. That which he puts back upon the soil is called a 
fertilizer, because it keeps the soil fertile. People in the city often 
use a fertilizer to feed the grass of their lawns and keep it green. 

Fertile soil may he robbed of its food and become sterile. 

Review Questions. — (1) Of what is the soil made? (2) How 
can you show that the little bits in it are hard like rock? (3) What 
happens when rocks are rubbed together ? (4) If you have ever seen 
rocks that were decaying and crumbling, tell about it. (5) How 
does water enter rocks? (6) What happens when water freezes in 
the cracks? (7) What else helps to crumble the rocks and soil? 
(8) What is beneath the soil? (9) Make a drawing, like Fig. 4, 
showing the rock beneath the soil. (10) Tell about the depth of the 
soil. (11) Why is there no soil in some places? 

(12) Why is the soil worth studying? (13) Name two things that 
plants take from it. (11) Of what advantage is a deep soil ? (15) Do 
all plants want the same kind of food ? (16) What causes the different 
kinds of soil? (17) What has made some soils so black? (18) What 
is fertile soil ? (19) Sterile soil? (20) How are some soils robbed of 
their plant food ? (21) What is used to make them fertile once more ? 
(22) Tell what you see in Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. 

Suggestions for Study at Home and Out of Doors. — 
Here are things, some of which, at least, you -will be able to see 
or do for yourselves : (1) Find a place where men are digging a 
ditch or cellar, to see how the dirt looks below the surf ace. (2) Find 
a boulder, cliff, old stone wall, or an old headstone in a graveyard, 
and see if the stone is crumbling. (3) Break some pebbles open to 
see whether or not they are decayed on the outside and fresh within. 
(4) Change a stone to dust. (5) Collect several different kinds of soil. 
(6) Plant beans in each kind, at the same time, and see in which one 
they grow best. (7) See what the effect would be if no water were 
given to some of them. (8) Find out what trees and vegetables grow- 
best near your home. (9) What do the farmers prefer to raise? 
(10) Go to a hot-house to find out what kind of soil is used there, and 
what is done to keep it fertile. (11) Write a short story about the soil. 
For References, see page 115. 



II. HILLS 

The soil that has been formed from rock has not been 
left smooth and level like a floor. The surface of the 
land is usually uneven or rolling ; and even those places 
which at first sight appear level, are really sloping 
(Fig. 7). Besides such gentle slopes, there. are many 




Fig. 7. 

A very level plain ; but since a stream is flowing through it, there must he 

slope. 

others steep enough to allow coasting in winter, and 
others still that are much too steep for this purpose. In 
other words, hills, some gently sloping, some steep, are 
found almost everywhere upon the surface of the earth 
(Fig. 8). 

10 



HILLS 11 

These hills have not always been here. Even the ones 
you may have seen and climbed have been slowly made. 
Let us see what has caused them. 

When it rains slightly, the water soaks into the ground 
and disappears ; but when there is a heavy rain, all of 




Fig. 8. 

A picture in a hilly country. The surface of the lake is level ; hut the hills, 
some steep, others gently sloping, are very irregular. 

the water cannot sink into the soil as rapidly as it falls. 
Some then begins to flow away. One little stream, per- 
haps hardly an inch wide, begins at one point ; another 
joins it ; quickly several of them unite, and soon a good- 
sized brook or creek is formed. Have you not noticed 
this flowing water in the school yard, in the roads, and on 
the sides of hills ? 

But did the water flow off without taking something 



12 



HOME GEOGBAPHY 



with it ? Was it not muddy ? This means that soil had 
become mixed with the water and was being borne away. 
Every heavy rain bears along much soil, cutting out little 
channels, washing out roads, and perhaps even destroying 
the beds of railways, so that trains must stop running for 
a time. 

During such a rain little channels, or valleys, and tiny 




Fig. 9. 
Little hills and valleys cut in the soil by heavy rains. Point to some of them. 

hills and ridges are carved in the soil (Fig. 9). No doubt 
you have seen these formed very many times. If not, 
you can easily make them by pouring water from a 
sprinkler upon a pile of loose dirt. 

During many hundreds of years the water has washed 
away an enormous amount of soil and rock which the 
large streams and rivers have carried away to the sea. 



HILLS 



13 



By this means deep valleys have been formed, with hills 
between them, much as the tiny channels in the school 
yard are cut in the dirt by the rain water. 

Then, also, some rocks are not so hard as others, and 
the softer ones, as they break up, are naturally carried 
away faster than those that are harder. This leaves high 
ground where the rocks are hardest. 

What a change water must have made in the appear- 
ance of the surface of the earth ! No doubt, in the very 
beginning there were hills and valleys ; but every year, 
for thousands of years, these have been slowly changing, 
so that they are now very different from what they were 
long ago. And after many more years they will be very 
different from what they now are, for they are even now 
changing. 

Most hills have been carved out by running water. 

In every neighborhood there are hills, although they may not be 
very high. The picture shows one with a somewhat gentle slope 




SEA LEVEL 



Fig. 10. 
To show the difference between the slope of a hill and its height. 



14 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



(Fig. 10). If a person were to walk up this hill, going from its base 
to the top, or summit, he would walk more than a mile ; but this, of 
course, does not mean that the hill is a mile high. 

For example, in Fig. 11 you see a board ten feet long, with one end 
resting on the ground and the other on a fence four feet above the 
ground. If a person starts at the lower end and walks to the upper 
end, he travels ten feet; but he is then only four feet above the 
ground. 

The height of a hill is much less than the length of 
its slope. 




Fig. 11. 

Perhaps you have heard that it is colder on the summit, 
or crest, of a high hill than at its base. If one takes a 
thermometer with him when going to the top of the 
Washington Monument (Fig. 85), which is 550 feet high, 
he finds that it is about two degrees colder at the top 
than at the base. 

People who live where there are high hills often observe 
that it snows upon them while it rains upon the lower 
ground at their base (Fig. 12). Explain why this 
is so. 

It is colder at the crest of the hill than at its base. 



HILLS 15 

Many people prefer to build their houses upon hills, 
partly because the air is cooler and fresher in summer; 
but another and more important reason is, that it is more 
healthful to live on this high ground. Where the land 
is low$ the slope is often so gentle that the water cannot 
flow off readily, so it stands, sometimes making wet places 



Fig. 12. 

Do you see any reason for thinking that it is colder near the summit of this 
high mountain than at its hase ? This is Mt. Chimborazo in South 
America, where it is very hot in the lowlands. 

called swamps (Fig. 33). Houses in such places often 
have cellars and foundation walls that are damp, and the 
people who live in them are in danger of fever, and of 
other kinds of sickness caused by this dampness. 

But the water usually runs quickly away from a hill, 
so that even after a heavy rain the ground soon becomes 
dry* In large cities, where land is very expensive, people 
build almost anywhere; but in these cities there are so 



16 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



many drain pipes, or sewers, to carry off the water, that 
even the low places are quite dry. 

In times past some men were in the habit of building great castles, 
"with thick walls, on the crests of hills (Fig. 13). From these they 
could look out over the country for a long distance and spy approach- 
ing enemies in time to prepare for them. Then, too, the steep sides 
of the hills were difficult for the enemy to climb, so that the people 
living in castles on hilltops were quite safe. 

Some of the Pueblo ludiaus built their towns upon the tops of 




Fig. 13. 
A castle built upon the brow of a high hill. Describe the view from there. 



steep hills in order to be safe from the more savage Indians who 
attacked them. For much the same reason the Puritans, many years 
ago, were in the habit of building their churches upon the hilltops. 

" Hills at present are little needed for such a purpose ; but there is 
another reason why people like to live upon them. From their tops 
they can look out over the fields for long distances and enjoy the 
beautiful views. Have you yourself ever enjoyed such a view? 

People like to build their houses upon hills, because it 
is healthful there and the views are beautiful. 



HILLS 17 

-Review Questions. — (1) Is there much laud that is really level? 
(2) What do you uuderstand by rolling land ? (3) Were the hills 
that you know always there ? (4) Have you seen water carrying away 
soil ? If so, tell about it. (5) Explain how hills have been made. 

(6) What is the base of a hill ? (7) The summit ? (8) Tell what 
you learn from Fig. 10. (9) From Fig. 11. (10) Make a drawing 
somewhat like Fig. 11. (11) On what part of a hill is it coolest V 
(12) How could you prove it ? (13) Why does it often snow on hills 
while it rains on lower land near by? 

(14) What is a swamp? (15) Why should not houses be built on 
swampy ground? (16) Why are hills liable to be dry? (17) Why 
is the lowland iu cities usually so dry ? (18) Why have castles often 
been built on hills? (19) Why did the earlier settlers place their 
churches on hills? (20) What other reasons can people have for 
wishing to look far out over the countiy? 

Suggestions for Study at Home and Out of Doors. — 
(1) Find some ground about your home that seems nearly level. 
Is it really level ? (2) Where is the longest slope in your neigh- 
borhood ? The steepest one ? (3) Watch the water carrying off soil 
after a rain. Where does the soil go? (4) Write a story about it. 
(5) Hunt for a washout after a heavy rain. (6) Where is your high- 
est hill? (7) In what season of the year is it especially pleasant to 
live on a hill? Why? 

(8) Can you find any houses built on low, wet soil? (9) Are their 
cellars ever very damp? (10) Ask some doctor why one should not 
live in such places. (11) Find some pictures of castles, showing 
their location. (12) Is your schoolhouse upon a hill? (13) Name 
any houses in your neighborhood that stand on a hill. (14) Where 
is your most beautiful view? (15) Do your friends agree with you 
that it is the most beautiful one? 

For References, see page 115. 



III. MOUNTAINS 

You may never have seen mountains, but you have 
certainly seen something that looks much like them. 
Often, on a summer evening-, the sun sets behind great 




Fig. 14. 

A park, or broad, open mountain valley in the Rocky Mountains. Sultan 
Mountain is in the distance. 

banks of clouds that reach far up into the sky. Some of 
them have rough, steep sides and great, rugged peaks, 
while others have more gentle slopes and rounder tops. 

18 



MOUNTAINS 



19 



Oftentimes there are many of them together, and they are 
so real that it seems as if one might climb their sides if 
he could only reach them. 

This is very much the way snow-covered mountains 
appear in the distance; in fact, the resemblance is so 
close that, when one is at a distance from mountains, he 
must often look 
carefully to note 
whether he is 
looking at real 
mountains, or 
only at clouds 
in the sky. 

The moun- 
tains in Fig. 14 
are much like 
hills, except that 
they are larger. 
Hills are seldom 
more than a few 
hundred feet 
high, while 
mountains rise 
several thou- 
sand feet in 
height. Some 
mountain peaks rise above the clouds (Fig. 71) and are 
often wholly hidden by them. 

Usually where there is one mountain peak there are 
others near by. They often extend a long distance, per- 
haps hundreds of miles, forming what is called a mountain 
chain, or a mountain range (Fig 16). 




Fig. 15. 
A snowdrift near Lundy schoolhouse, Mono County, 
California, March, 1909. The children have just 
reached the school on their skis. Describe what 
you see in this picture. 



20 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 




Fig. 16. 
A spur of the Sierra Nevada Ranges, on trail in Kern River Canon. 

Such great ranges have been formed in different ways. They may 
be due to volcanic action, to earthquake movements, to slow folding, 
as in Fig. 17, or wholly to erosion. 

You can imitate 
mountain folding by 
crumpling a number 
of sheets of paper. 
The reason for this 
folding of the rock 
layers will be found 
stated on page 133. 

Mountains 
are lihe hills Fig. n. 

only they are This is a drawing of a mountain range sliced through 
7 • „ 7 -, so as to show the layers of rock that have heen 

higher and more pushed upward 
rugged. 
' Men often climb to the tops of mountains. It might 




MOUNTAINS 



21 



seem that this would not take a very long time, nor be 
very difficult; but to go to the crest of even a low moun- 
tain is often quite a task. Upon a level road one can 
easily walk a mile in less than half an hour. But it 
might require a whole day of steady climbing to reach the 
summit of a mountain only one mile high. 

It would be a 
long journey even 
if one could go in 
a straight line to 
the top. It has al- 
ready been stated 
(p. 14) that to 
climb a hill two 
or three hundred 
feet high it is 
necessary to walk 
a longer distance 
than this. The 
same is true of 
mountains. 

Most mountains 
are so. steep that 
one would grow 
very tired climb- 
ing directly up 
their slopes; so a 
much longer, zigzag path is usually followed. Then, too, 
there are often steep cliffs, or precipices, that could not be 
climbed (Fig. 18), and one must travel round these to find 
a place where the slope is gentle. This makes the path still 
longer, so that to climb a mountain one mile high it mi'ght 
be necessary to walk ten miles, or even more. 




Fig. 18. 

A mountain precipice in the Yosemite Park among 
the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. 
No one could possibly climb the face of this 
steep rock cliff. 



22 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



If the air is colder at the crest of a hill than at its base, 
one might expect that it would be very much colder on the 
top of a high mountain, and this is true (Fig. 12, p. 15). 
In fact, it grows so much colder near the summit of the 
higher mountains that it never rains there, but snows 
instead; and it may even be so cold that trees cannot grow 
there. 

It is a long distance to the top of a high mountain, 
and the air is cold there. 




Fig. 19. 
Mt. Shasta from Sisson, showing the timber line. 

Many people visit Mt. Shasta, Fig. 19 ; but while they enjoy climb- 
ing about on the sides, and looking at the beautiful views, very few 
reach the summit of the higher peaks. It is the best-known moun- 
tain of California, and is over two and one half miles in height. 

Suppose we make an imaginary trip up a high mountain. We 
start early in the morning so as to have a long day. Each of us 
carries a few light articles, but the guides carry most, for they are 
strong and used to climbing. 

At first we walk along a pleasant path in a beautiful wood. 



MOUNTAINS 23 

A house is occasionally passed and perhaps a green field. But soon 
there are no more houses and fields, and the trees become smaller and 
smaller until the line is reached above which it is so cold that no trees 
can grow. This is called the tree line or timber line (Fig. 19). 

From this point on, no plants larger than bushes are seen, and after 
a while even these disappear. Meanwhile the soil and the grass have 
become more scarce, while here and there banks of snow are found in 
the shady hollows. Soon we have climbed to the snow line. This is 
the line above which snow is found all the year round. Now, no mat- 
ter in what direction we look, rock and snow are everywhere to be 
seen, the latter often being many feet deep. 

What a beautiful view before us! It repays us for all the hard 
work. We look down upon the woods through which we have just 
passed ; then, over beyond them, to the deep valleys, with the green 
fields, pretty houses, and villages far below us ; and, beyond these, to 
the other steep mountains upon the opposite side of the valley. 

The guide takes his place in front of us, and often tells us to stop 
while he goes ahead to examine the way. It may be that the snow 
has bridged over and hidden a deep and narrow chasm, so that if one 
were to step upon this snow he might fall through. 

As we advance higher and higher, it is often necessary to take a 
narrow path on the steep side of the mountain. On the right you can 
look hundreds of feet almost directly downward ; on the left are great 
stones and masses of snow almost directly overhead. 

The snow sometimes falls, forming snow slides or avalanches, which 
are very dangerous. You have seen the same thing, on a much smaller 
scale, when snow has slid from the roofs of houses on warm winter days. 

After much hard work we reach the summit. Here, in spite of our 
wraps, we are all shivering ; for upon high mountain summits there 
are winds whicli seem to go through even the thickest cloth. 

On this barren mountain top there are no birds, no trees, no grass : 
nothing but snow and rock ; but if it is a clear day, and there are no 
clouds clinging to the mountain sides below, we may be able to look 
down into the beautiful green valleys, only a few miles away. There 
the birds are singing, flowers are blossoming, and men, working in 
the fields, are complaining of the heat. 

It is a difficult and dangerous journey to the top of a 
high mountain. Why? 




Fig. 20. 

Foot of the Echo Mountain incline, Mt. Lowe Railway, Los Angeles County. 
Length of incline, 3000 feet; direct ascent, 1325 feet. At the end of this 
inclined railway is an electric line which carries passengers around and up 
the mountain five miles to Alpine Tavern, Fig. 21. 

24 



MOUNTAINS 



25 



It is by no means so difficult to reach the summits of 
all mountains. Many of them are so low that there is no 
snow upon them in summer, and trees live and thrive 
even at the top. Roads or car lines (Fig. 20) may have 
been built to the summit, so that one may ride up instead 
of walking. 




Fig. 21. 
Alpine Tavern, Echo Mountain, Los Angeles County. A noted summer resort. 

Among some of these mountains hotels are built 
(Fig. 21) to which people go in summer to escape the 
hot weather. There they may walk through the woods, 
and climb to many interesting places, where fine views are 
to be had. 

Mountains are important summer resorts. 

Perhaps you already know that the rocks inside the moun- 
tains sometimes contain gold and silver (Figs. 22 and 23). 
Iron, lead, and other metals are also found there. When 




Fig. 22. 

Iu these buildings metal is obtained from the ore that is mined in the moun- 
tain rocks far below the surfaces. 




Fig. 23. 
Mule hauling gold ore on 2200-foot level, Empire Mine, Nevada County, 
California. This mule has been in the mine for five years and will not be 
taken to the surface until his days of usefulness are over. 

26 



MOUNTAINS 



27 



they are dug out from the rocks they are ores, which 
do not look much like these metals as we know them. 
Bat the metal in the rings, watches, and silver dollars 
that you have seen, and even the iron parts of your school 
desk, may have come from the rocks of some mountain. 




Fig. 24. 

"Mossbrae Falls," Shasta Springs, California. 

Mt. Shasta. 



Fed by the melting snow of 



The trees in the mountain forests are also valuable. The most 
common kinds are evergreens, such as the pine, hemlock, and spruce, 
which are green even through the winter, and which can live on the 
cold mountain sides as far up as the timber line. 

Mountains are covered for miles and miles with dense forests. 
This is fortunate, for the trees may be cut down and sawed into 
lumber, from which all sorts of wooden articles are made. Possibly 



28 HOME GEOGBAPLIY 

the very seat in which you are sitting was once a part of a tree that 
grew on the side of a mountain. 

Mountains are of further use because of the abundance of water 
they supply. We have already seen that there is much ice and snow 
upon some of them ; in fact, there is so much upon the h igher ones that 
it can never all melt away, no matter how hot the summer may be. 

During hot weather many streams dry up ; but at such times the 
ice and snow of the mountains only melt the faster, so that the streams 
which flow forth from these mountains are even more swollen than 
usual (Fig. 24). This water may run along for many miles until it 
finally reaches towns and cities where people need it to drink. Do 
you know of any city that gets its drinking water from such a river?. 

Mountains furnish metals, lumber, and water. 

Review Questions. — (1) What can you say about the height 
of mountains? (2) How have they been made? (3) What is a 
mountain chain or range? (4) How long might it take to climb a 
mountain a mile high? (5) Why so long? (6) What can you tell 
about the cold at the summit? (7) How do the trees change in 
appearance as one mounts higher and higher ? 

(8) What would you need for a journey up Mt. Shasta ? (9) De- 
scribe the first part of the journey. (10) What is the timber line? 
(11) What is the snow line ? (12) What are avalanches ? (13) De- 
scribe the view from the top of the mountain. 

(14) Mention some reasons why mountains are favorite sum- 
mer resorts. (15) What kinds of mines are found in mountains ? 
(16) Why is it fortunate that trees grow so well on mountain^ 
sides? (17) What is done with them ? (18) Tell what you can 
about the streams that flow from mountains. 

Suggestions. — (1) Watch for clouds that resemble mountains. 
Make a drawing of them. (2) Find pictures of mountains; note the 
timber line, the snow line, and other points of interest. (3) Rep- 
resent a mountain in sand. Show the tree line ; the snow line ; steep 
and gentle slopes. (4) Represent a mountain range in sand. (5) In 
what direction are the nearest mountains? What are they called? 
How far away are they ? Find out an interesting fact about them. 

(6) Ask some one who has climbed a mountain to tell you about it. 
(7) Would you care to climb one yourself? Why? (8) Write a 



MOUNTAINS 



29 



story relating the adventures you would expect in mountain climbing. 
Describe some of the views you would expect to find. (9) Why do 
few people live high up on the mountain sides ? 
For References, see page 115. 




U. S. Forest Service, camp and party. Calaveras Grove, 
ander Von Humboldt." 



Big tree " Alex- 



IV. VALLEYS- 




We have seen how water is always washing away soil, 
making hills and changing their appearance. Wherever 

hills are found 
there are al- 
ways low places 
or hollows, and 
these are called 
valleys. 

Some very 
small valleys 
yon have al- 
ready seen in 
Fig. 9. They 
are only a few 
inches wide, and 
the tiny hills or 
ridges between them are only a few inches high. 

Every stream of water, whether great or small, when 
flowing over soft earth, is carrying some of it away and 
forming valleys. Even when flowing over hard rock, the 
water is doing the same thing, but more slowly. It grinds 
the rock away by dragging pebbles and grains of sand 
over it, thus scouring it out. This work of the water is 
never finished, for every rain is slightly changing the 
valleys. 

Are there any valleys in your neighborhood ? Do you 
live in one ? If you have traveled on the railway, you 
have certainly seen many of them. Figures 11, 14, and 25 

30 



Fig. 25. 



A beautiful stream in the Yosemite Valley. 



VALLEYS 



81 



show valleys. Can you find others in the book ? In Fig. 
25 is shown a small stream with the land on either side 
gently sloping toward it. 

Since there are very few places without slopes and hills 
of some kind, there must be few places without valleys. 
Although some of these are narrow, others are so wide 
that one cannot see across them. 

Wherever two downward slopes come together, a valley is formed, 
whether the slopes be long or 
short. In those that you can 
find, notice the difference in the 
slopes. If in one of the valleys 
there is a stream, notice the 
direction in which it flows. 
Why does the water flow at 
all? Which way is down the 
valley f Point up the valley. 

Yon see, of course, that val- 
leys have not only width, but 
length. Perhaps your home is 
in a valley that is many miles 
in length. Find out if this is 
true. 




The dotted lines show the divides be- 
tween the valleys. Trace them. What 
else do you see in the picture ? 



Most valleys have been cut out of the land by running 
water. 

In the picture (Fig. 26) you see several valleys. Rain 
falls into each of these, some of it sinking into the soil and 
some running off down the slopes. Into which valley will 
the water flow that falls on the top of the ridge ? 

When it rains upon the roof of a house (Fig. 27), the 
water is divided along the highest part, some flowing 
down one side, some down the other. The same thing 
happens when water falls on the land. Because the water 
parts, or divides, at the highest place between two valleys, 



32 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 




this place is called a divide or water parting, or sometimes a 

watershed. The 
dotted lines in 
the picture 
(Fig. 26) show 
some divides. 
How irregular 
the lines are ! 

A divide some- 
times stands out 
sharply, as on 
the roof of a 
house ; but in 
many places it 
is difficult to 
find, for the 
land there may 
appear to be 

flat. Can you point out such a place in Fig. 26? 

If you wish to know how wide one of these valleys is, where 
would you begin to 



measure ? Would it not 
be from the divide on 
one side to the divide 
directly across on the 
other side? Of course 
it would, for the divides 
form the boundaries of 
the valley (Fig. 28). 

A divide or water- 
shed is the highest 
ground separating 
two valleys. 



Fig. 27. 

A house roof, to show that the water is divided along 

the highest part. 




Fig. 28. 
The line A-B shows the width of this valley. 
Observe that the valley is much wider than 
the stream. 



VALLEYS 



33 



While the valleys that one usually sees are both narrow 
and short, there are some so long and wide that one could 
not travel their whole length or width, even if he were to 
spend all day and all night upon a fast train (Fig. 29). 
In our own country there is such a one, called the Missis- 
sippi Valley, which is over three thousand miles long and 
many hundred miles wide. 







" ' 








*i 


. ;'. 



Fig. 29. 

Picture of a river winding through a broad aDd very long valley. 

When valleys are as large as this, their slopes must be 
very gentle. On that account many people who live in 
the Mississippi Valley scarcely know that they are in a 
valley. The river flows through the lowest part, and the 
homes of these people may be so far away that they have 
never seen it. All about them the land appears so level 
that it does not seem to form a part of a slope. It is 



34 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 




A valley sliced through to illustrate how valleys may he formed hy the fold- 
ing of the rock layers. 

therefore called a plain. But when rain falls there, it 
immediately flows toward the river, thus proving that the 
plain is a part of the great Mississippi Valley slopes. 

Such an immense valley was not cut out by running 
water. You have learned that hills are made in that 
way, but that mountains are formed by the rising of great 




Fig. 31. 
Truckee, California, a mining town among the Sierra Nevada Mountains. 



VALLEYS 



35 



masses of rock. Some of the great valleys, like the Mis- 
sissippi, have also been made by changes in the level of 
the land. But even the valleys that have been formed 
in this way have generally been greatly changed by the 
water that has run through them. 

Some great valleys have been formed by the rising or 
sinking of the land. 

People generally choose the valleys for their homes. 
Even among 
high mountains, 
where it is imr 
possible to live 
on the steep and 
cold sides, they 
often dwell in 
the bottom of the 
valleys. Here 
they are sur- 
rounded by lofty 
peaks which ap- 
pear to shut 
them in almost 
entirely (Fig. 

31). 

Hills are often 
too cool, or else 
have too shallow 
a soil for farming. The rains have washed the dirt down 
the steep slopes into the lower part of the valleys, making a 
deep and fertile soil there. In the valleys, therefore, the 
best farms are found, with their great fields of corn, oats, 
wheat, and grass. Here, also, cattle and horses are raised 




Fig. 32. 

A "prize winner" grazing on alfalfa growing in the 
deep, rich soil in a valley hottom of Kern County, 
California. 



36 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

(Fig. 32), many large cities have sprung up, and railways 
have been built. 

Most of the land is really made up of slopes, and we 
are living upon them. It may not seem that your home 
is upon one, but it probably is. Your house may even be 
upon a hilltop, and yet you may be living in a broad valley. 

Most people live in some part of a valley. 

The soil is all the more valuable because of the slopes 
of valleys. Were it not for them the water, after a heavy 
rain, would stand in a thin sheet upon the ground. But 
where there are slopes down which the water can freely 
run, it quickly flows off and does not drown the crops or 
make the region unhealthful for man and animals. 

The great importance of this matter is shown when farmers buy 
land. One of the first things that they inquire about is drainage, 
that is, the slopes, which allow the water to run off quickly. 

If the water does not freely flow away, they even dig ditches in 
order to carry it off (Fig. 33). Sometimes these ditches are left open, 
as in the picture ; but, more often, tiles are placed in the bottom," 
forming a kind of pipe, and then the earth is thrown back again. 
The water finds its way into the pipes, through small openings that 
are left for this purpose, and flows away. Good drainage is so im- 
portant that men are often willing to incur great expense in order to 
secure it. 

In- some places the land is so nearly level that the 
standing water produces swamps. There are thousands 
of swamps in this country, and great sums of money are 
spent in digging ditches to drain them. This makes the 
swamp dry; and since the soil in such places is very fer- 
tile, a great deal of land that was once of little value is 
now changed to rich farms. 

The slopes of valleys are valuable for drainage. 



VALLEYS 37 

Valleys have had a great influence upon the roads of a 
country. For instance, in going across mountains men 
generally follow a valley, going higher and higher until 




Fig. 33. 
A ditch dug to drain a swamp. 

they come to what is called a mountain pass (Fig. 34), 
which is nothing more than a valley between mountain 
peaks. After crossing this, they go down another valley 
on the other side of the mountain. 

Railroads also cross mountains through the valleys and 
over the lower passes ; they wind in and out, often mak- 
ing sharp curves in order to avoid cutting directly through 
the rock. 



38 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

Even in hilly regions it is usually easier to get from 
one place to another by traveling in the valleys. In the 
lower parts, near the streams, the land is most nearly level ; 
but as soon as one attempts to go directly across the coun- 
try, the roads become rough and hilly. 




Fig. 34. 

Inspiration Point on White Pass Route — the old-time route to the gold fields 
of the Klondike. 

On that account, when white men first came to this 
country, and settled among the hills and mountains, they 
built their roads in the valleys, often quite near the streams. 
Men do the same thing still. 

Where the country is more level, as upon a plain, it is 
not so difficult to travel directly forward ; but even in 
such places both the wagon roads and the railways are 
often built round a small hill rather than over it. 

The location of wagon roads and railways depends 
on the valleys. 



VALLEYS 



39 



We have seen that hills and mountains afford many beautiful views. 
But it is not necessary to go to the mountains to see fine views. You 
may see them in almost any valley or plain. Those living in cities, 
or even small towns, may see roadways well graded and shaded by 
beautiful evergreen trees (Fig. 35). The advent of the automobile 
has been the means of securing better roads. Why? 





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bP* 


.,'-? 








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W<riBi 


& ?l 


•^Bi 






J&TJP 1 








H^P|^3 


Wf- r M 




tm 


MB' 






m\ 


J5j 






■&^.^n 
















8S8i 




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3. 1 " 


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jjBLll 





Fig. 35. 
A beautiful tree-lined roadway for automobiles and carriages. 



In the country, also, there are many beautiful sights, such as the 
variously colored fields, the waving grain, the graceful trees, and the 
shady roads. 

In the spring the plants are fresh and bright; in the autumn they 
are prettily colored; in the winter the damp snow clings to the trees, 
bushes, fences, and houses until everything is robed in white (Fig 36). 
Again, the rain freezes to the trees, and when the sun appears, every- 



40 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



thing sparkles in the bright light as if it were covered with a thou- 
sand jewels. 

It is not necessary, then, to travel far in order to find beautiful 
views ; they are to be found everywhere, not only among the moun- 
tains, but on the hills, in the valleys, in the country, and in the city. 

The hills, mountains, and valleys are very beautiful. 




Fig. 30. 
A scene in a city park after a heavy fall of damp snow. 



Review Questions. — (1) What makes the little valleys? (2) Tell 
why they must change from year to year. (3) Describe some of 
those that you have crossed on the railway. (4) How many slopes 
are necessary to make a valley? (5) What is a divide? (6) Tell 
how large some of the largest valleys may be. (7) How have these 
very large valleys been formed ? (8) What is a plain ? 

(9) In what parts of mountains do most people live? Why? 
(10) What is meant by drainage ? (11) How do farmers sometimes 
provide drainage? (12) What is a swamp? (13) Why do roads 
and railways among the mountains follow the valleys ? (14) What 



VALLEYS 



41 



is a mountain pass? (15) Where is the most level land usually- 
found? (16) What fields or yards near you are beautiful? (17) Are 
there any walks or drives that you greatly enjoy ? (18) How do the 
views change from time to time ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Find a tiny valley and watch to see if it is 
changed in any way by a heavy rain. (2) Find a still larger valley 
in your neighborhood. (3) Find the divide on each side of it. 
(4) Show that streets and roads are so made that they have a water- 
shed. (5) Make some valleys in clay or sand and show the divides. 
(6) Where is the largest valley in your neighborhood ? (7) Is your 
home in one of the very large valleys, or in a small one ? (8) Show 
by a drawing like Fig. 30 how the largest valleys have been made. 
(9) Can you show it in any other way? (10) Why should swamp 
land that has been drained raise uncommonly good crops? (11) Do 
you know of any roads or railways that follow valleys and wind about 
the hills? Tell about them. (12) Find some beautiful views in 
your neighborhood. (13) Make a collection of pictures of valleys.. 
(14) Write a story telling how valleys have been formed. 

For References, see page 116. 




A beautiful home iu the Sacramento Valley, Colusa, California. 



V. RIVERS 

Every heavy rain causes the water to collect, here and 
there, and flow down the slopes. At first only tiny rills 
are formed; but these unite to form the little streams 
and brooks. 




Fig. 37. 
A noisy brook in the Adirondacks of New York, tumbling over its rocky bed. 

42 



RIVERS 



43 



In some places a brook is narrow and deep, in others 
broad and shallow ; here it flows swiftly and there slowly. 
Place a chip or a boat in such a brook, and it floats quietly 
in some places, and then, coming to a rapid, it is whirled 
along swiftly and perhaps upset (Fig. 37). Or it may 
float to a waterfall, where the water tumbles down from the 
top of a ledge, and then it is surely overturned (Fig. 38). 




Fig. 38. 
Pitt River Falls, Shasta County, California. 

There are large rivers in the world much like these 
little brooks, the main difference being in their size. But 
even such rivers are generally small at their beginning 
or source. Some of the largest have their sources far up 
the mountains, where they are so small that a person can 
easily step across them. 



44 HOME GEOGBAPHY 

The water of these rivers may come from the melting 
snows ; and, as it dashes along, beating itself into foam by- 
striking against the rocks, it is joined by other streams 
like itself. Often the water must rush round or leap over 
large boulders which lie in its path ; and often it falls 
directly downward for many feet with a great roar 
(Fig. 75). 

Great rivers at their source are usually no larger than 
a brook. 

The water of a mountain stream seems to be quite help- 
less, with the great, hard rocks all about it ; but it never 
gives up its struggle with them. Rocky cliffs may reach 
far up into the sky on either side, and the slopes may be 
so steep that loose pieces of stones often fall into the 
water. But the torrent dashes these against one another, 
and grinds them against its rocky bed, until they are worn 
into pebbles. These pebbles are borne downstream and 
are slowly ground up into grains of sand and bits of clay. 

If we should travel down such a stream, starting near 
its source among the wild mountains, we should find it 
constantly changing. In the first place, it gradually grows 
larger, because other streams, called branches or tributa- 
ries, enter it (Fig. 39). The banks become lower and the 
river grows broader and deeper. In places there may still 
be rapids and falls, but the country on either side is not 
so steep and rocky as it was among the mountains. Now, 
houses, farms, and men are seen, and horses and cattle are 
grazing in the fields near the banks. 

At first, the slope of the stream bed was so great that 
the river hurried along faster than you could run. Now 
the water no longer flows rapidly enough to drag boulders 



BIVEBS 



45 



or even pebbles ; but it can still carry the sand and mud 
brought by the rain from the soil of the hillsides. 




Tig. 39. 

Two streams, the Allegheny and Monongahela, uniting at the great city of 
Pittsburg in Pennsylvania. 

It has now been many days since this water left the 
mountains. The 
river has become 
so wide that a long 
bridge is needed 
to cross it (Fig. 
40), and so deep 
that boats navi- 
gate it, carrying 
freight and pas- 
sengers (Fig. 41). 

At last, per- FlG - 40 - 

, if. The long bridge across the Mississippi River at 

haps weeks after — St. Louis. 




46 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 




Fig. 41. 

Sacramento River at Sacramento, California. It flows through a splendid 

farming country. 

it started, the water approaches the ocean ; and now the 
downward slope of the river bed is so gentle that the current 
cannot drag even grains of sand ; but it still carries fine 
bits of rock-mud with it. These bits may be so tiny that 
if yon were to place some of the muddy water in a glass, 
it would take hours for all of them to settle and leave the 
water clear. When the river enters the quiet waters of 
the ocean, even this mud, or sediment, settles. 

We have followed the river from the source to the 
mouth, where it empties its waters into the great ocean. 
At first it was a little stream, but by the addition of water 
from many tributaries, it has grown larger and larger, 
until at its mouth it may be more than a mile in width. 

A great river is broad and deep at its mouth, and its 
current is very slow; but it carries sediment even to the 
ocean. 

Where does so much water come from ? Taken up 
from the ocean, it falls from the sky in the form of rain 



RIVERS 



47 



or snow. But we all know that small streams dry up and 
disappear soon after a rain. Even large streams may be- 
come quite dry in summer (Fig. 42). Why, then, do not 
great rivers also dry up ? 

One reason is that many rivers have a constant supply 
at their source. That this is true of a stream starting in 
a high mountain is clear, because we have seen (p. 28) 




Fig. 42. 

Paso Robles, California. Notice in the foreground the Salinas River bed, 
which is filled with water when the rain falls or the snow in the mountains 
melts, but dry during the summer. 

that the snow in such places never entirely melts away. 
It is also true of streams that have their sources in lakes 
and swamps. 

Then, again, not all of the rain water flows off, but some 
sinks down into the ground. There is a great deal of 
water in the ground, and it is this which men find when 
they dig wells. This underground water trickles through 
the soil, and through crevices in the rocks, often bubbling 



48 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



forth as a spring, weeks after it has fallen as rain some- 
where else. Most large rivers are supplied with water 
from hundreds and even thousands of such springs. 

It is to be remembered, too, that a great river, with its many tribu- 
taries, flows through a very large tract of country, so that when it is 
not raining in one part, the rain may be falling in another. Thus, 
while one tributary carries little water, heavy rain may keep others 
full, and this flows into the main stream, preventing it from drying up. 




Fig. 43. 

Photograph of a river flood on the Ohio, which has forced the people out of 
their home. Tell what you see in this picture. 

If a heavy rain falls, or if the snow melts rapidly, so 
much water may flow into a river that it rises and over- 
flows its banks (Fig. 43). Those who live near such 
streams are in danger of being drowned by the floods, 
and in some places men have built banks of ' earth, 



RIVERS 49 

called levees, to keep the water from overflowing the 
towns and farms. 

The supply of river water comes from rain or melting 
snoiu, from lakes and swamps, and from underground. 




Fig. 44. 
A small river basin drained by a valley stream. Tell what you see in this picture. 

Every one has seen muddy water flowing in gutters, or in rills on 
the hillsides. Great quantities of soil are washed away in this man- 
ner, as has been shown (p. 12). But what becomes of it all ? 

If you have seen a sidewalk or a field flooded with water, you per- 
haps remember that when the flood disappeared, a thin layer of fine 
mud was left. This mud was carried along by the current until it 
reached a place where the water stood almost still, then it slowly set- 
tled. The same thing will happen if some muddy water is allowed to 
stand in a glass for a time. Try it. 

E 



50 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



In much the same way, when there is a river flood (Fig. 43), the 
water spreads out on either side of the river in a great, thin sheet, flow- 
ing slowly along and depositing a thin layer of mud. Each flood adds 
a layer, making the land higher, until, after many years, it is lifted 
considerably above the usual level of the river. Such land is gener- 
ally a level plain ; and since it is made by river floods, it is called a 
flood ■plain. 

Some of the sediment carried by rivers forms flood 
plains. 

Much of the sediment is carried on until it reaches a lake 
or the ocean. Here, opposite the river mouth, the water 
is generally quiet, so that the mud sinks to the bottom. 

At first only 
enough sedi- 
ment is collected 
to form low, 
swampy land ; 
but this is gradu- 
ally lifted higher 
and higher, by 
layers of mud 
from each flood, 
until it becomes 
high enough to 
make dry land. 
These plains 

at the mouths of rivers form what are called deltas (Fig. 
45). Many streams have such wide deltas that one 
cannot see across them, most of the sediment having come 
from fields, hills, and mountains, perhaps hundreds of 
miles away. The surface of the delta is a plain, because 
it cannot be built any higher than the floods themselves 
have reached. 




Fig. 45. 

This picture shows a river delta. What else do you 

see in the picture ? 



RIVERS 



51 



From year to year more sediment is brought down, and 
the land is built farther and farther into the water, so 
that deltas are constantly growing. The slope of the 
river bed is usually so gentle that all of the water cannot 
flow out in a single channel. For this reason it enters the 
sea through several arms, cutting 
the delta into several parts. 

Some of the sediment car- 
ried by rivers builds deltas at 
their mouths. 

A river entering the sea may re-, 
ceive water brought by hundreds of 
tributaries. Thus the rain that falls 
in places even hundreds of miles apart 
may at last be brought together in 
a single main stream. Such a main 
stream with all of its tributaries is 
called a river system (Fig. 46). For 
instance, we speak of the Mississippi 
River system, meaning the Mississippi 
and its many tributaries. 

All the country which is drained by 
a single main stream is called a river 
basin. Thus all the land drained by 
the Mississippi River is included in 
the Mississippi basin. 

One should not think of this as a 
true basin. A real basin, as a wash- 
basin, has a rim extending all around it. 
is the divide ; but there is no divide, or rim, near the mouth of a 
river, since the water runs out into the sea. If it were a true basin, 
with a rim all around it, the water would collect and form a lake. 

All the land whose waters are drained by a single river 
is called a river basin, and all these streams together form 
a river system. 




Fig. 46. 

Picture of a river system and 
river basin. Point to some 
of the tributaries ; to their 
source ; to the mouth ; to the 
delta. 



The rim of a river basin 



52 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

Some ways have already been suggested in which rivers 
are of much use. They build flood plains and deltas, thus 
making some of the most fertile land in the world. Rivers 
also furnish water to plants, animals, and man. 

On page 6 it was shown that plants sometimes wither during hot 
weather, because the soil is dry. But near rivers the soil is usually 
kept so moist that plants grow well even in dry weather. 

There are some places in the world where there is not enough rain 
for crops to grow. The people in such regions sometimes lead the. 
water out of the rivers into ditches, through which it flows for long- 
distances. Then it is spread out over the thirsty soil, so that plants 
can thrive. This is called irrigation, and in some places no crops can 
be raised without it. 

Many animals and people depend on rivers for all the water they 
use. Even whole cities obtain their drinking water solely from rivers 
(Fig. 49). 

Streams not only bring water that is needed, but they 
also carry away that which is not wanted. A river is 
really a great ditch for draining the land, so that when- 
ever the snow melts rapidly, or a heavy rain falls, the 
rivers quickly remove the water. They also carry off the 
filthy water, or sewage, of many towns and cities. 

Rivers supply ivater that is needed, and remove that 
which is not wanted. 

The water of rivers is also used for turning wheels to 
help make many articles, such as cloth and flour. 

You have perhaps noticed how windmills work (Fig. 68). 
The wind blows the large wheel round and round, and 
it is so connected with other wheels that it can pump 
water, or turn a saw for sawing wood, or grind corn. 
Likewise steam is used to turn the wheels of a railway 
engine, so that it drags the heavy cars along. 

River water is made to do work in much the same man- 



RIVERS 



53 



ner. The water, racing rapidly along, strikes a wheel 
and makes it whirl round. This wheel, being connected 
with others, causes them to turn also, much as one wheel 
in a clock causes others to revolve. 








Fig. 47. 
Old mill and wheel covered with moss. 



Saint Helena, California. 



Thus machinery is set in motion by which logs are 
sawed into lumber, grain is ground into flour, cotton is 
made into cloth, and many other kinds of work are done. 

The water that furnishes the power to turn the wheels 
is called the water power, and the buildings in which such 
manufacturing is carried on are called factories or mills. 

In many places the river water does not flow fast enough 
to strike a wheel with much force ; water power is found 



54 110ME GEOGRAPHY 

mainly in rivers with swift currents, and especially near 
rapids and falls. Here mills have been built, and then 
great cities have often sprung up (Fig. 75, p. 91). 
Rivers also supply water power for manufacturing. 

There is still another way in which rivers are extremely 
valuable. It has always been difficult to find a conven- 
ient means for carrying goods from one place to another. 
In some places there are no roads ; and even where there 
are, they are often hilly, rough, and muddy. 

Yet most of the articles that we use every day, like 
sugar, flour, oil, meat, coal, lumber, and clothing, have 
been carried long distances, sometimes thousands of miles. 
Even if, the roads were excellent, it would take a great 
deal of time, and cost much money, to bring these things 
in wagons. To carry them by railway takes less time, 
but is expensive. 

A broad, deep river is really one of the finest roads in 
the world. To be sure, no wagons or cars can be drawn 
over it, but boats move there with ease. A river boat 
can carry as much as scores of wagons or cars (Fig. 48), 
and many may be going and coming at the same time, so 
that a large river is equal to several railroads ; it costs 
little, too, to keep it in repair. 

For these reasons carrying goods by boat upon rivers, 
or river navigation, is a very important business. Indeed, 
it is so important that in many places broad ditches, called 
canals, have been cut in the soil and rock in order to carry 
goods by boat. 

Before the railways were built, — which is no longer 
ago than when your grandfathers were boys, — boats were 
used for carrying all sorts of articles from place to place. 



RIVERS 



55 



Even to-day, when there are so many good wagon roads 
and railways, it is cheaper to carry crops and other prod- 
ucts on boats than in cars, and this is often done. 

We see, then, why many people have preferred to build 
their homes near rivers. A farmer prefers to live near a 
good wagon road, or near the railway station, so that he 
may easily send his crops away ; and, for the same reason, 




Fig. 48. 

A view across the broad Mississippi at New Orleans. The other hank is seen 
dimly in the distance. A loaded river boat is just coming in, and others 
are tied up to the levee. 

people have always liked to live near a river, which is a 
good road or waterway. It is partly on this account that 
many of the large cities of the world stand on the banks 
of large rivers. Do you know of any such cities ? 
Rivers are also of value for navigation. 

Review Questions. — (1) Describe a stream that you have seen. 
(2) What are rapids and falls? (3) Describe a small stream in 
the mountains. (4) What does it do with the rocks in its way? 
(5) What are tributaries ? (6) Does the current grow more or less 



56 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

swift as one goes farther downstream? (7) How does the country- 
change in appearance ? (8) What becomes of the pebbles ? Why ? 

(9) What is meant by the source of a river ? By its mouth ? 

(10) Where do rivei's obtain their water? (11) What is a spring? 
(12) What effect has a heavy rain upon a stream ? (13) Why do 
not large rivers dry up in summer? (14) Why does not sediment 
sink where the current is swift? (15) What is a flood plain ? Why 
is it level? (16) Explain how a delta is made. (17) What is a 
river basin? (18) A river system ? (19) Why do plants grow well 
on the banks of a river ? (20) What is irrigation ? (21) How are 
rivers useful for drainage? (22) What is water power? (23) In 
what ways is a river a fine road? (24) Give some of the reasons 
why many cities have sprung up near great rivers. 

Suggestions. — (1) After a heavy rain, follow a small stream 
from its source to its mouth. (2) Throw a chip into the water, and 
follow it as far as you can. (3) Why are the rocks in river beds 
usually so smooth and round ? (4) If there is a brook or river near 
you, examine its banks. Is it a tributary of another stream ? 
(5) How deep and how wide is it? (6) Trace a brook to its source, 
if possible. Find several tributaries. (7) What large river is nearest 
your home ? What are its largest tributaries? (8) What is meant 
by "up a river"? By "down a river"? By right bank? By left 
bank? By river channel? By river bed? (9) Find a spring. 
Why is its water cool? (10) Watch a well that is being dug, 
to see if underground water is found. (11) Find a flood plain along 
the side of a stream. (12) Find a delta. (13) Do you know 
of a city that gets its water from a river? (14) Make a small 
water wheel, and arrange for a stream of water to turn it round. 
(15) Visit a mill that is run by water power. (16) Find out more 
about canals. (17) Make a collection of pictures of rivers, and 
notice as many things as you can about them. (18) Find some 
poems describing brooks and rivers. (19) Write a story of a journey 
from the source to the mouth of a river. 

For References, see page 116. 



VI. PONDS AND LAKES 

Rivers supply towns and cities with water, and also 
turn the wheels of factories ; but some streams become 
so low in summer that they lack water for these pur- 
poses. To prevent this difficulty men often build dams 




Fig. 49. 
Merced Falls, California. Water supply for domestic use and for irrigation. 

of wood, earth, or stone across the rivers, and in this way 
collect sufficient water to make ponds (Fig. 49). When 
the rivers are high, these ponds are filled, and enough 
water gathers to last through the dry season. 

Lakes, may be made in a similar manner, for they are like ponds, 
only larger. Sometimes they are several hundred miles in length, 
and perhaps one hundred miles in width. Some of the largest in the 

57 



58 " HOME GEOGRAPHY 

world, the Great Lakes in the northern United States, were made by 
dams formed ages ago across parts of the great St.. Lawrence River 
system. 

But in most cases these dams have not been built by men. Beavers 
have made a few of them. There used to be a great many of these 
little animals in this country, and some are still left. Since they pre- 
fer quiet, shallow ponds in which to live, they gnaw down trees and 
build dams with the logs ; then they build their homes in the water 
thus collected. 

In other places, where the sides of a valley are steep, great masses 
of rock and earth have sometimes fallen, in the form of avalanches, 
and blocked or dammed the streams. 

Also it was stated (p. 20) that the earth has been warped or bent 
upward in some places, forming low ridges, or even lofty mountain 
ranges. In this way the ground has sometimes slowly risen across 
river valleys, making high dams ; in such cases large lakes have been 
formed. 

There are many other ways in which dams have been built, espe- 
cially by means of glaciers, which you will study about later. 

Most poncts and lakes have been formed by dams 
across valleys. 

Since a lake is generally a part of a stream, it is evident 
that water must flow into it. The river that flows into a 
lake is called the inlet, and that which flows out is called 
the outlet. There are also many streams entering from 
the sides. Each of these brings sediment, which settles 
in the lake, slowly filling it. At first deltas are built 
opposite to the stream mouths ; then, in time, the whole 
lake is filled and changed to a swamp. Many a swamp is 
really the last stage in the life of a lake. 

The surface of a lake appears to be level ; but one part 
is really slightly higher than the other, otherwise.the water 
would not flow out of it. The higher part of the lake, near 
the inlet, is called the head of the lake, the lower part, near 



PONDS AND LAKES 



59 



the outlet, the foot of the lake. It is correct, then, to 
speak of going up or down a lake, just as we speak of 
going up or down a river. 

Some lakes have no outlets, because there is so little water that 
the basin cannot fill up aud overflow. This has a very peculiar effect 
upon the water, for in time it becomes salt. Probably you have heard 
of the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake of Utah. These are salt 
lakes of this kind, and no one would drink their water, even if he 
were dying of thirst. 




Fig. 50. 
A mountain stream. An outlet to a lake. 

But why do such lakes become salt? There is some salt in all water, 
even in that which we drink, although so little that we do not notice 
it. When water flows into a lake, the salt is carried with it. If there 
is no outlet, the salt can go.no farther; but each day some of the 
water is changed to vapor and carried away in the air. As the bits 
of salt cannot go off in this way, they remain, and increase in number, 
until, in time, the water becomes so salt that we have a salt lake. 

Most lakes have inlets and outlets ; but some, having 
no outlets, become salt. 



60 



HOME GEOGBAPHY 



The land at the margin of a river is called the bank, but 
that along the margin of a lake is called the shore. Some- 
times the lake shore is low and wet, being overgrown 
with swamp plants. Again, it is pleasant to walk upon, 
being made of sand and pebbles brought there by the 
waves. This kind of shore is called a beach (Fig. 51). 




Fig. 51. 

Lake shore. Clear Lake, California. 



Many lake shores are regular, but many more are irreg- 
ular. In some places points of land, called headlands, ex- 
tend into the water (Fig. 52). If small, these are called 
points or capes; if large, peninsulas. A narrow neck of 
land joining two larger pieces is an isthmus. Bodies of 
land entirely surrounded by water are known as islands. 



PONDS AND LAKES 



61 





\?>\ 


^ 








_, B » 


^fo->C-^ 


S38HBB 




- .V3V*W> 


1 '".' •■■ ' 






^o'v<\\. i 






*Po'ml 














w 


K 




^ tH 




K*f» 


^ >: ,. 






3b -t j - JSB 





Fig. 52. 
A view of Moosehead Lake in Maine. Learn what each of the names means. 

The water that is partly shut in between two headlands 
is called a bay. When a bay has deep water, and is so 
nearly surrounded by land that vessels can enter it and 
be protected from the wind and waves, it is called a 
harbor. A narrow strip of water connecting two larger 
bodies of water is known as a strait. 

When the water gathers behind a dam to form a lake, it enters 
many valleys, forming bays and harbors, with capes, and perhaps 
islands between. This is the chief reason for the irregular shores 
of many lakes. If you will make a little valley in clay, with two or 
three tributaries entering, then put a dam across it and fill it with 
water, you will see just how this is done. 

The shores of lahes are often irregular, producing 
bodies of land and water of rnany shapes. 

Ponds and lakes are useful in many of the same ways 
as rivers. They help to keep the ground moist ; they 



62 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 




Fig. 53. 

How many of the features just mentioned can you find in this picture ? Find 
some also on Fig. 60. 

furnish water to cities, and they supply water to turn 
the wheels of factories. Besides this, many valuable 
fish are caught in lakes, and much ice is cut from their 
surface. 

Again, like rivers, lakes are important waterways. 
Upon large lakes, like the Great Lakes, hundreds of ves- 
sels are going and coming, carrying men, grain, coal, lum- 
ber, and countless other things. On this account many 
people have settled on the shores of large lakes ; and, as a 
result, many towns and cities have been built there. Do 
you know of any ? 

The shores of lakes are often very beautiful, and many persons go 
to them in summer to hunt, fish, and canoe. There are hotels there, 
too (Fig. 52), and some lakes are important summer resorts. 

Lakes supply drinking water, water power, fish, and 
ice. They are also useful for navigation and for sum- 
mer resorts. 



PONDS AND LAKES 



63 




Fig. 54. 
A, picture to show how deep a vessel sinks in the water. 



How are vessels loaded with goods ? And again, how 
can these cargoes be unloaded ? Wagons may be driven 
beside a railway car, and be filled or emptied speedily. 
But a large boat 
sinks down 
many feet into 
the water (Fig. 
54), so that if 
it came near the 
shore, it might 
strike the bot- 
tom and be 
wrecked. 

Fortunately, 

here and there along the lake shore, there are small bays 
with deep water. The opening is large enough for vessels 
to enter easily, but small enough to keep out the fierce 
waves. Here we have a fine harbor (Fig. 55). 

From the shores of the harbor men build piers of wood 
or stone, called wharves. These reach into the deeper 
water, where ships may be fastened or moored to them. 

Large cities are sometimes found on parts of a lake shore where there 
are no such natural harbors. In that case harbors have to be made, 
even though it is expensive to do so. Walls of rock, or of posts driven 
deep into the ground, are built in such a way as nearly to inclose a 
body of water, very much as capes inclose the water of a natural harbor. 
Such a wall is called a breakwater (Fig. 56), because it breaks the 
force of the waves, and prevents them from entering the space 
behind. 

When a harbor is not deep enough for vessels to enter, it is 
necessary to dig out the dirt and rock from the bottom. This 
is quite often done in the inlet and outlet streams at the ends of 
a lake. 



64 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 




Fig. 55. 
Avalon, Catalina Island, California. A noted resort. 

Harbors are places where vessels find safety from 
storms and where cargoes are loaded and unloaded 
with ease. 




Fig. 56. 

Breakwater at San Pedro, where the coast has no natural harbor. 

Built by U. S. Government. 



PONDS AND LAKES 65 

Review Questions. — (1) Why are dams built in rivers ? (2) Ex- 
plain how ponds are made. (3) How do lakes differ from ponds? 
(4) How are lakes made? (5) Tell what you can about beaver 
dams. (6) In what other ways may lake dams be made ? (7) What 
is thainlet of a lake? The outlet? The head? The foot? (8) How 
does it happen that some lakes have no outlet? (9) What about 
the water then ? Why ? 

(10) What is meant by shore? By beach? (11) What do you 
understand by a regular lake shore? (12) Make a drawing of a 
cape; peninsula; isthmus; island; bay; strait. (13) Tell in words 
what each of these is. (14) What is the cause of these irregularities? 
(15) Mention a few uses of ponds and lakes. (16) What is a harbor? 
(17) Why must the water be deep? (18) How can a harbor protect 
ships from storms? (19) What is a wharf ? (20) How are harbors 
often made ? (21) What is a breakwater ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Build a dam in some small stream and note 
how rapidly the water collects. (2) Find out more about bsavers. 

(3) Look for a pond or lake and examine the dam that caused it. 

(4) See if there are both an inlet and an outlet. (5) Walk up the 
lake ; walk down the lake. (6) Examine the shore and notice the 
different forms of land and water. (7) Find a small harbor. Would 
every bay make a good harbor? (8) Make a small, irregular 
hollow in clay and fill it with water to form capes, harbors, and 
islands. (9) Find some of these in the pictures and maps of 
this book. 

(10) How do men get ice from a lake ? (11) In what ways do men 
catch fish? What kinds of fish have you seen caught? (12) Find 
pictures of good harbors. Look for the wharves and the breakwater. 
(13) Build a breakwater to form a little harbor in a small stream or 
pond. (14) Find just how many feet some of our largest ships sink 
into the water. 

(15) Walk toward the nearest large lake. What are some of its 
tributaries? Where is the inlet stream? The outlet? What are 
their names? (16) Name some cities that are on lake harbors. 
(17) Write a story telling what you would expect to see along a 
lake shore. 

For References, see page 116. 



6Q 



HOME GEOGBAPHY 




Matchless Lake Tahoe, California. 




Stowe Lake, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco. 



VII. THE OCEAN 

The great rivers, starting as tin}' brooks, grow into 
larger and still larger streams, until, after days and per- 
haps weeks, they reach the mighty ocean. No doubt much 
of the rain falling in your neighborhood finally reaches 
the sea in this way ; and if you could float along upon it 
in a light boat, in time you too would reach the ocean. 

We can see across most lakes, and can sail across even 
the largest in a day or two ; but the ocean is far larger. 
One could sail upon it in the same direction for many 
days without coming to land (Fig. 57). It is so great 
that it surrounds all the land on which people live, and 
no matter in which direction you might travel, if you 
went far enough you would come to it. 

If you were to start out to reach the ocean, the journey 
might last many days. It might be necessary to go up 
hills and across valleys, to pass around lakes, and possibly 
over great ranges of mountains. You would be surprised 
to find how much land there is, and how many farms, 
villages, towns, and cities there are. 

But there is far more water than land. In fact, the 
water covers about three fourths of the earth's surface and 
the land only one fourth. If one were to travel entirely 
around the earth, he would probably spend much more 
than one half of his time upon the ocean. 

The ocean is so immense that the great rivers in all parts of the 
earth pour their water into it. Their mouths may be thousands of 
miles apart, yet the sea stretches far enough to reach them all. 

67 



68 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



The water of the ocean is too salt to drink ; but river water is 
fresh. Since there are many thousands of rivers entering the sea, 
would you not expect that their water would make the ocean less salt ? 
It does do so near the mouths of great rivers ; but soon it becomes 
mixed and swallowed up in the salt water. This is another way of 
showing the size of the ocean, for all the river water that enters it is 
not enough to make it fresh. 

The salt water of the ocean surrounds all the land. 




Fig. 57. 
A view of the great ocean. 

Different parts of the ocean have different names. For 
instance, the Atlantic Ocean is the part lying between' the 
United States and the land called Europe, where the 
English, German, and other peoples live. We buy many 
articles from these countries, such as woolen cloth, knives, 
oranges, and olives ; and they likewise purchase other 



THE OCEAN 



69 



articles from us, such as wheat, cotton, and meat. The 

way to reach these people is to cross the Atlantic Ocean. 

The fastest steamers need five or six days for the 
voyage. 

In all parts of the earth the ocean is a great highway. It is so 
large that thousands of ships are traveling upon it in all directions, 
carrying people, cattle, grain, fruit, iron, different kinds of machines, 
and many other things. Although there are so many ships, the ocean 
is so large that one ship may sail for days without seeing another. 




Fig. 58. 
Ocean steamer, about to leave for the Orient. 

Ocean navigation is therefore a great business, and many 
thousands of men are engaged in it. Most of the ships 
used are larger than the vessels upon lakes, and they 
sink deeper into the water (Fig. 58). Very large ones, 
when loaded, reach down about thirty feet below the 
surface. 



70 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



Of course the ships meet with storms upon the ocean, as upon lakes. 
In fact, the ocean waves are at times so high that they sweep over and 
almost cover up the largest vessels (Fig. 59). 




Fig. 59. 
Ocean waves during a storm. 

The coast of the ocean resembles the lake shore in hav- 
ing capes, peninsulas, islands, isthmuses, straits, and bays 
(Fig. 60). We have learned (p. 35) that the land in 
places has been raised or lowered. When it is lowered 
near the seacoast, the water enters the valleys and partly 




Fig. 60. 

A picture of Castine harbor on the irregular coast of Maine. Here the land 
has been lowered so that the salt water of the ocean has entered the val- 
leys, covering their bottoms, but leaving the hilltops as islands, capes, etc. 



THE OCEAN 



71 



drowns the land, as it does in lakes (p. 61). This, of 
course, makes an irregular coast. 

Naturally, on such an irregular coast there are harbors 
which large vessels enter, and in which they are safe from 
storms. For example, New York harbor is so broad and 
deep that hundreds of ships (Fig. 61) are found in it at 
all times, either loading or unloading their cargoes, or 
waiting for storms to pass. 




Fig. 61. 

A view among the ships along the wharves of New York harbor. The great 

Brooklyn Bridge is seen behind the masts. 

Goods are brought to New York, not only from Europe, but also 
from China and Australia, and, in fact, from all parts of the world. 
It is quite possible that the tea and coffee which are used on your 
table, and the bananas and pineapples which you have eaten, were 
brought over the ocean and unloaded in this harbor. If not, they 
were unloaded in some other fine harbor, such as Boston, San Fran- 
cisco, Philadelphia, Baltimore, or New Orleans. 



72 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

Since the ocean easily connects such harbors with all 
parts of the world, it is natural that great cities should 
spring up where the best ocean harbors are found. It is 
partly on this account that New York, Philadelphia, Bos- 
ton, and San Francisco have become such large cities. 

Vessels come toward these seaports from all parts of the world ; 
but it is often difficult to tell just where to enter the harbors, espe- 
cially at night. Ships are in danger of going out of the way, and of 
running upon rocks, or reefs, in the shallow water near the coast 




Fig. 62. 
A vessel wrecked by running aground upon a shallow reef. 

(Fig. 62): On that account, tall lighthouses are built on many 
islands and capes, so that" captains may know by their lights which 
way to go in order to enter the harbors (Fig. 63). 

TJxe ocean is a great waterway connecting different 
parts of the world. 

Not only are goods carried on vessels, but- many men go out in 
them, often out of sight of land, in order to catch the fish which. live 
in such great numbers in the sea. Instead of hooks and lines, long 
nets are often used, and in them so many fish are caught that the 
vessel is loaded down with fish. No doubt some of the mackerel that 
you have eaten have been caught in this way. Picture 67, page 79, 
shows a vessel that is used to catch ocean fish. 

In summer the ocean shore is cooler than the land far 
away from the sea. This is because the air is cooled as 



THE OCEAN 



73 



it passes over the water. Many people therefore go to 
the seashore to avoid the hot weather, just as others go to 
the mountains. Here they spend day after day climbing 
about over the rocks or walking upon the clean, sandy 
beach, breathing the fresh air, enjoying the beautiful 
scenery, and bathing in the cool salt water (Fig. 64). 




Fig. 63. 

Point Loma Lighthouse, California. A bright light is placed at the top of the 
tower so that it may he seen far away. 

On this account many houses, and even towns, have been built at 
those places along the seashore where people wish to spend their vaca- 
tions. There are large hotels to accommodate the visitors (p. 76) ; 
and in the summer these places are crowded ; but very few people 
remain at summer resorts during the winter. 

There is another way in which the ocean is even more 
useful to man. It is the sea water which supplies us with 
moisture, so that there can be rain. If it were not for the 



74 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



great ocean, very little rain would fall. So every one is 
deeply indebted to the ocean, even though he may live 
thousands of miles from it. Soon you will learn (p. 80) 
how its water reaches us in the form of rain. 

The seashore is a popular summer resort; the ocean 
water supplies food and makes rain possible. 




Fig. 64. 
Bath House, Ocean Park, California. 

Rivers, lakes, and the ocean present many beautiful views. You 
may have observed that in cities, where people plan for fine parks, 
they arrange, if possible, to have a lake or stream as part of the 
scenery. A body of water, even if but a brook, greatly improves a view. 

A brook is a beautiful object (Fig. 65). How pleasant to see its 
green banks, to listen to its rippling waters, and to watch its tiny 
rapids, whirlpools, and falls, as it travels onward to the ocean ! 

Rivers are not less attractive ; like the brooks, their rushing 
waters seem to tell a story, and one loves to linger by them, to listen 
and to look. At times, when swollen by floods, they are wild and 
savage ; again, they are quiet, peaceful, and beautiful. They wind in 
and out among the steep and wooded hills ; now they flow along 
noiselessly, then they rush over rapids and falls with a roar; here 
their banks are low and green, there they are high, steep, and rocky. 



THE OCEAN 



75 



The lakes and the ocean are sparkling sheets of silvery water, often 
dotted here and there with white sails. Sometimes the color is green, 




Fig. 65. 
A quaint bridge across a beautiful brook in New York State. 

again it is bine ; and when the clouds hang over it, it is dark and 
gloomy. There are beautiful sunrises and sunsets to watch ; and 
one can see the storms come and go, with the waves dashing into the 
whitest of foam. In fact, the water, the sky, and the coast are always 
changing in appearance, so that the lake shore and the seashore are 
among the most attractive of places. 

The land and the water together furnish -many beauti- 
ful viezus. 



Review Questions. — (1) What place does the water of brooks 
and rivers finally reach? (2) How much of the earth's surface is 
water? (3) What other facts show that the ocean is very large? 
(4) Tell about ocean navigation. (5) What is the cause for irregular 
ocean shores? (6) Tell what you can about New York harbor. 
(7) Why are large cities found on the fine ocean harbors ? (8) Of 
what use are lighthouses ? (9) Name some foods obtained from the 
ocean. (10) Why do many people go to the seashore in summer ? 

(11) Do you know of any park or meadow with a stream or lake in 
it? If so, describe it. (12) Did you ever enjoy watching the water? 



76 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



Where was it? (13) How does the surface of a lake or ocean change 
at different times ? 

Suggestions. — (1) In what direction would you go to reach the 
ocean? How far is it? (2) Find pictures of large harbors with 
ships in them. (3) Name several seaport cities. (4) Have some one 
tell you about a journey across the ocean. (5) Name as many arti- 
cles as you can that come from over the ocean. (6) How does the 
captain of a vessel know in what direction he is going, after losing- 
sight of land? (7) How are ships made to move through the water ? 
(8) What use is made of whales ? (9) Find out how fish are caught. 
(10) Ask some one who has visited a summer resort on the seashore 
to tell you about it. (11) Is there any brook or river that you enjoy 
visiting? Where is it most beautiful? (12) Tell about some of the 
storms on the ocean described in Robinson Crusoe. (13) Do you know 
of any views that are made more beautiful by the presence of water ? 
If so, where are they? Describe them. (14) Collect, from magazines, 
pictures of beautiful views with water in them. (15) Write a story, 
telling what you would expect to see in crossing the ocean. (16) Make 
a drawing of a ship. 

For References, see page 116. 




Coronado Beach, San Diego, California. Coronado Hotel in the distance. 



VIII. THE AIR 

Since air cannot be seen, people often forget that it 
really is something ; but a fire will not burn without it, 
and plants, animals, and men must have it to breathe. In 
fact, drowning means nothing more than sinking under 
water, where there is not enough air to breathe. 

This is proof that the air is really something, even 
though it cannot be seen ; and you can prove the same 
thing in other ways. For instance, if you stand with 
your face to a breeze, you feel the air moving. Some- 
times this movement of the air, which we call wind, is so 
rapid that it blows down trees and houses. 

Here is an experiment to prove that the air is something and that 
it fills space. 

Find an empty bottle without a cork and sink it in water with the 
open end up. Notice the gurgling noise as the bubbles of air rise to 
the surface, while the bottle slowly fills. Where does this air come 
from? And why does not the bottle fill more quickly? You see that 
although we called the bottle empty, it was really filled with air which 
could not be seen. The water could not enter the bottle until it pushed 
the air out, because the bottle could not be filled with two substances 
at the same time. So, as the air was leaving, the water was entering. 

If the bottle is turned bottom upward, and pushed perfectly straight 
into water, the air will be given no chance to slip out, and then the 
bottle cannot be filled with water. 

Air is something real and occupies space. 

There is air all around the earth, and it extends many 
miles above us. This air, often called the atmosphere, is 

77 



78 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



usually in motion, now in one direction, now in another, 
and it often moves fast enough to cause a breeze, or wind. 

Even when the wind is not blowing near the ground, it may be 
doing so far above, where the clouds are. You can see that this is so 
if you watch the clouds as they are driven along by the winds. 

Let us see what causes the air to move. Heat has much 
to do with it. If you watch smoke in a room where there 

is a lighted lamp, you will 
see that it moves toward the 
lamp, and then rises above 
it (Fig. 66). Hot air also 
rises above a stove, or above 
a furnace through the regis- 
ters ; and during the winter, 
when there is a hot fire, the 
air near the ceiling of a room 
is much warmer than that 
near the floor. 

The reason for all this is, 
that when air is warmed, it is 
expanded and made lighter. 
Light objects, such as wood, 
will rise and float in water. 
So, also, when air is warmed 
and made light near a lamp, 
the cooler, heavy air all 
around flows toward the lamp and the warm air is forced 
to rise. It is, in fact, pushed up by the current of heavy, 
cool air. 

Now we can understand the cause of winds. The at- 
mosphere in one place, perhaps to the north of you, is 




Fig. 66. 

Smoke rising from the table above 
the lighted lamp. 



THE AIR 



79 



colder than that where you are. This cold air, being 
denser and heavier than the warm air, begins to push it 
away, and thus moves toward you, forming a cold north 
wind. 

People on the sea or lake shore often have such winds in summer, 
when, during a hot day, the air over the land becomes heated, while 
that over the water remains cool. The cool air then commences to 
move landward, and a cool sea breeze begins to blow. 

Whenever the air is heavy in one place, and light in 
another, winds will blow toward the place where it is 
light. Since this lightness of the air is usually caused by 
heat, we say that 

Most winds are caused by differences in the tempera- 
ture of the air. 



Winds are useful in many ways, 
vessels through 
the water, and 
they turn wind- 
mills (Fig. 68), 
which are often 
used to pump 
water from wells. 
But what is most 
important, they 
carry water all 
over the earth. 
At all times 
there is enough 
water in the at- 
mosphere to fill 
many large lakes. 



They drive sailing 




Fig. 67. 

A sailing vessel driven through the water by the force 
of the wind. This is the picture of a fishing schooner 
going out of the harbor after a load of fish. 



80 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



You know that there must be some water in the air, for 
wet clothes hung out on a line become dry as the water 
passes off into the air. 

Some of the water in the atmosphere enters it after 
every rainstorm, when the muddy roads and wet fields are 
dr} T ing ; but most of it comes from rivers, 
lakes, and the ocean. We have already learned 
(p. 67) that the ocean covers about three 
fourths' of the surface of the earth. The air 
is taking water from all parts of it, so that 
each minute enough water to fill thousands 
and thousands of barrels is leaving the ocean 
and floating away in the atmosphere. 

Another reason why we know that there 
must be much water in the air, is that much 
comes out of it in the form of rain, snow, hail, 
dew, and frost. 
The air takes up water from one place and holds it, per- 
haps for many days, during which time the winds may 
have carried it hundreds of miles ; it may then be allowed 
to fall. Thus it is by the help of the wind that rocks are 
wet and caused to change to soil, plants are made to grow, 
rivers are furnished with water, and animals and people 
are given water to drink. 

Persons living where there is plenty of rain perhaps do 
not realize how important it is ; but there are some parts 
of the earth where the air is so dry that very little rain 
can fall from it. In these places, called deserts (Fig. 69), 
only a few kinds of plants and animals can live, while men 
generally avoid them. 

The air obtains water from the ocean, and the winds 
carry it about. 




THE AIR 



81 



What causes water to rise into the air ? And why can 
we not see it there ? If you watch a boiling kettle, you 
will see that " steam " rises from it. In a short time all 
the water will be boiled out of the kettle, passing into the 
air, where you can no longer see it. 

The water in the kettle was a liquid, which could be seen ; 
but heat has changed it to a gas, which, like air, is colorless 
and cannot be seen. Then, too, it is so light that it floats 
round in the air. This water gas is called water vapor, and 
the change from liquid water to vapor is called evaporation. 




Fig. 69. 
A Caravan on the Desert of Persia. 

It is not necessary to boil water to make it evaporate ; 
for all over the earth, where there is water, vapor is rising 
from it into the air. You can prove this for yourself by 
placing a pan of water on a table and leaving it for some 
days, and then noticing how much of it has evaporated. 
It is in this way that the great amount of water, which 
every moment is rising from the ocean, is able to pass 
into the atmosphere. 

Water vapor is obtained by evaporation. 



82 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



When it falls from the sky as rain, the water vapor has 
changed back to liquid water. What causes it to do 
this? 

Have you ever noticed a glass or pitcher of ice water 
" sweat " on a hot summer day (Fig. 70) ? The water 
that collects on the glass has not leaked through, for there 
are no holes in the glass. What has really happened is 

that the air near the dish has 
been cooled so that the vapor in 
the air has collected in drops 
on the cold surface of the glass. 
Drops would gather there just the 
same, even if no water were in 
the glass, provided the surface 
remained just as cold. 

On wash day, when a great 
deal of water vapor rises from the 
boiler, the windows are often cov- 
ered with drops of water, because 
the vapor has been changed back 
to liquid, or condensed, on the cold 
window pane. Your own breath 
contains vapor, and you can change 
it to water by breathing on a cold 
window pane. So you see that if 
air loaded with vapor is cooled, some of the vapor gas is 
changed back to water. 

There are several ways in which air may be cooled. 
You know that mountains are colder than the lower 
lands (p. 22) ; so that winds blowing over them are often 
chilled, and their vapor condensed. It is evident from 
this that mountains are an important help in causing rain. 




Fig. 70. 

Little drops of water con- 
densed front the vapor of 
the air on the outside of a 
glass of cold water. 



THE AIR 



83 



Vapor may also be condensed when a cold wind blows 
against a warm one. Again, during summer the sun may 
shine down so hot that the air near the earth becomes 
warm. This makes it so light that it often rises high into 
the sky, where the air is so cold that the vapor condenses 
into rain. The summer thunder showers, which often 
come on hot afternoons, are caused in this way. 

Vapor is condensed by the cooling of the air. 




Fig. 71. 
Mt. St. Helena, California. 

There are several different forms of condensed vapor. 
When you breath into the air on a cold, frosty morning, 
your breath forms a little fog or cloud. The cold air has 
made the vapor change to tiny particles of water, so small 
that you cannot see a single one, though many of them 
together make a thin mist. You have no doubt seen fogs 
in- valleys, on lakes, or over the ocean. These are always 
made of tiny drops of water condensed from vapor in the 
air. 

Most clouds are also made of tiny fog and mist parti- 
cles. These, too, are caused by the cooling of the air, 
sometimes when it moves against mountain slopes (Fig. 
71), sometimes when cold winds blow against warm ones, 



84 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 




and sometimes when warm air rises high in the heavens 

and becomes cool (Fig. 72). 

Another form of condensed vapor is the raindrop which 

falls from the clouds. 
These drops begin : as 
tiny mist or fog par- 
ticles, and then, becom- 
ing larger and larger, 
grow so heavy that they 
can no longer float, but 
must fall to the ground. 
We have seen that 
water may be either a 
liquid or a gas. There 
is still another form, the 
solid, which is produced 
when vapor condenses 

in a temperature below 32°, or the freezing point. Then 

snow or hail is formed instead of rain (Fig. 73). 

At night, drops of water often collect on the cold ground, 

on grass and 

leaves, some- 
what as it 

does on an ice 

pitcher or the 

window pane. 

This is dew, 

which gathers 

because the 

ground cools 

quickly after 

the sun sets, 



Fig. 72. 

A summer cloud, often called a " thunder 
head," formed by the rising of warm 
air to such a height that the vapor is 
condensed. 




Fig. 73. 
Photographs of snowflakes. Sometime, when light, 
feathery snow is falling, notice what beautiful forms 
it takes. 



THE AIR 



85 



so that the warm, vapor-laden air is chilled until the 
vapor is condensed. 

If the temperature is below the freezing point, frost is 
formed instead. 

You will notice that raindrops, fog particles, and snow- 
flakes form in the air, while dew gathers on grass and the 
drops of water on window panes. Really the raindrops 
and fog particles also gather on solid substances ; for there 
are many tiny, solid particles of dust floating in the air, 
which you can often see dancing in a beam of sunlight, 
and it is around these that the rain, fog, and snow form. 

It is condensed vapor that forms fog, mist, rain, snow, 
hail, dew, and frost. 

Usually winds from certain directions, as from the 
ocean, are liable to bring rain, while others indicate fair 
weather. By keeping a daily record of the direction of 
the wind, and of the kind of weather it brings, you will 
be able to find out for yourself which of your winds 
cause fair weather and which rainy. You might also 
look at the thermometer at the same time and note the 
temperature. By these means you can learn something 
about the weather around your home. A record of this 
kind, which would be called a weather record, might be 
kept somewhat as follows: 1 — 



Date and Time of Day. 


Direction of Wind. 


Kind of Weather. 


Temp. 


Aug. 17, 1899, 8 a.m. 
Aug. 17, 1899, 8 p.m. 
Aug. 18, 1899, 8 a.m. 


Southeast. 
Calm. 
- West. 


Cloudy. 
Gentle Rain. 
Clear. 


70° 

72° 
68° 



1 If it is practicable, the teacher should at this point introduce an ele- 
mentary study of weather maps and have the pupils read them each day. 



86 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

Review Questions. — (1) Of what use is air ? (2) How can you 
prove that air is something? (3) Describe the experiments with 
the bottle. (4) What do they prove? (5) What are winds? 
(6) Prove that there are winds high above the ground. (7) Why 
does the air rise over a lighted lamp ? (8) What causes winds ? (9) In 
what ways are winds useful ? (10) How can you prove that there 
is water in the air? (11) Where does most of it come from? 
(12) What do the winds do with this water? (13) Of what service 
is the rain? (14) What becomes of water as it boils? (15) What is 
water vapor ? (16) What is evaporation ? 

(17) What happens to vapor when cooled ? (18) Tell some 
ways in which you can see condensed vapor. (19) In what ways can 
the vapor in the air be condensed? (20) Why can you "see your 
breath " on cold mornings? (21) How are clouds formed ? (22) How 
cold must it be to form snow? (23) How is dew caused? Frost? 
(24) Of what importance are the dust particles in the air ? (25) Tell 
how you would keep a weather record. 

Suggestions. — (1) Why are stoves made so as to let in air for the 
fire ? (2) What becomes of the air after it enters ? (3) How does 
air reach the wick of a lamp ? (4) Try a common drinking glass, 
instead of a bottle, to show that air takes up space. (5) Heat some 
muddy water and watch its movement. (6) Why does smoke go up, 
and not down, the chimney? (7) Show how a hot stove causes a 
movement, or circulation, of the air in a room. (8) Find out how 
your schoolhouse is ventilated. (9) How many examples can you 
give of evaporation of water? (10) Cool a piece of glass or iron and 
notice the vapor condense upon it, when the air is " muggy " or when 
steam is passing into the air. (11) Why do clouds frequently sur- 
round mountain tops? (12) See how early in the evening the dew 
begins to collect upon the ground. (13) What causes fogs to dis- 
appear? (14) Which winds usually bring rain to you? (15) How 
far have they probably carried the vapor ? How long would it take 
them to do this, if they traveled at the rate of eight miles per hour ? 
(16) Write a story, giving the history of a raindrop. 

For References, see page 116. 



IX. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 

Every man is expected to engage in some kind of 
work, or industry, in order to earn a living. For instance, 
farmers raise stock and grain, while gardeners produce 
vegetables and fruit. The crops they raise vary with the 
locality. 

Some men, instead of working in the soil, are engaged 
in manufacturing such articles as shoes, cloth, and ma- 
terials used in building and furnishing houses. Are 
there any of these men in your vicinity ? If so, what do 
they make ? You can at least find a blacksmith shop, or 
a tin shop, or a house that is being built. Notice how 
many different materials are used by the workmen. 

Storekeepers do neither of these two kinds of work. 
What, then, do they do ? Notice how many articles the 
grocer keeps in his store, also the dry-goods merchant, 
and others whose stores you visit- Where do they get 
them all? 

At the present time it is easy, where most of us live, to 
buy almost anything, and to find men who can do almost 
any kind of work. We are so accustomed to all this that 
we are apt to forget that it has not always been so. 

Not many hundred years ago there were no stores or 
houses in this country; and each family, as it settled 
here, was obliged to find its own food, make its own 
clothing, and build its own house. 

87 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



Let us study more fully how people lived in those 
days, and how changes have gradually been made until the 
present manner of living was reached. 

The first persons who left Europe, and crossed the 
Atlantic Ocean to live in this country, naturally settled 
along the coast, because that was the first place reached. 

But soon men began to push into the wilderness 
farther west. Often several families settled together, 
miles away from other people. Sometimes a single 

family would go off 
alone, and make a 
home ten or twelve 
miles from the nearest 
neighbor. Most of the 
United States was first 
settled by these scat- 
tered pioneer families. 
Of course when a 
man started out he 
took some articles with 
him, as a gun, with 
powder and bullets, 
some clothing, and 
some blankets; but upon arriving at his new home he 
was obliged, like Robinson Crusoe, to rely upon himself. 

In 1816, when Abraham Lincoln was seven years of age, his father 
moved to Indiana. He had to cut down trees in order to make room 
for a house, which he built of logs with mud between the cracks (Fig. 
74). It had no floor except the earth, and only one room. Abraham 
slept in the loft, climbing up each night by pegs fastened in the logs. 
The beds were some posts driven into the ground with crosspieces, 
the chairs were three-legged stools, and the table was a part of a log 
supported upon four legs. When a young boy, Abraham wore trousers 




Fig. 74. 

A log house, such as the pioneers used to 
build in the forests. 



INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 89 

of deerskin, and when he was not barefooted he probably used moc- 
casins for shoes. 

His father raised enough corn for corn bread ; their tea was often 
made from roots in the forest, and meat was obtained by shooting 
wild game. Abraham was very fond of books ; but at night he read 
by the light of burning wood, for he had neither candle nor lamp. 
He wrote with ink made from brier root, and with a pen made from 
the quill of a large feather. Almost everything that the family used 
was raised or made by the father and mother, so that they had to do 
many kinds of work. 

Such was the life of the early frontier settlers. Usu- 
ally they raised their grain and wheat for bread. They 
kept sheep and made the wool into yarn, blankets, and 
cloth. If a boy needed a new suit of clothes, his mother 
would make the cloth, cut it, and sew it. They were 
obliged to do nearly everything for themselves. 

As a rule, each man raised more of some things than 
his own family could use, as wheat, wool, or hogs ; but 
there were others that he had to buy, as powder, sugar, 
salt, pepper, and coffee. 

It was the custom, therefore, to drive two or three times 
a year to the nearest large town, perhaps a hundred miles 
away, taking the products of the farm and exchanging 
them for necessary articles. 

These trips had to be few, for the roads were often 
rough, muddy, and dangerous. It might require two 
weeks or more to haul a load of grain to town and bring 
back the coffee and other materials the family wanted. 
In parts of the world, where there are few settlers, people 
are still living in this manner. 

But one family did not usually live long alone, for soon 
others came and settled near them. Perhaps several built 
their houses near together, forming a little village. 



90 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

Now that there were more people, the kind of work 
that each did began to change. Perhaps one of them 
built a sawmill, and sawed lumber for the others when 
they needed it. Another spent part of his time at car- 
pentry work for his neighbors. A third built a gristmill, 
and occasionally ground grain into flour. A fourth made 
shoes, or clothes, a part of his time, or he doctored the 
sick, or preached, or taught school. 

Perhaps the blacksmith spent all of his time in his shop, shoeing 
horses, making plows, etc., while the storekeeper did nothing but 
buy and sell goods. He went to the city and bought the supplies that 
he thought his neighbors would need, such as matches, boots, shovels, 
calico, and drugs, and these he kept in his store for sale. 

It was not then necessary for the farmer to go to the 
distant town, because he could usually find what he wanted 
at the store ; and if he raised more potatoes than he needed, 
he could take them to the storekeeper and get coffee in 
return. Or he would receive money for them, and with 
this pay the blacksmith who had shod his horses, or the 
doctor, or teacher. In many of the less settled parts of 
the country this is the way people are still living. 

Each year more people took up land, until most of it 
was carefully cultivated, and towns and cities grew up 
(Fig. 75). Then they began to live in the way that is 
now so common. That is, each man now confines himself 
to one or a very few kinds of work, and depends upon other 
men for the other things that he needs. Those who live 
in the country are chiefly farmers, and raise the food that 
we eat. Others work in mines, digging coal, iron, lead, 
copper, silver, or gold out of the ground. 

Many, instead of raising crops or working in mines, 
are employed in mills and factories. One saws logs into 



INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 



91 



lumber, or makes doors; another manufactures cloth, an- 
other needles, another shoes. Others follow the industry 
of tailoring, tanning hides for leather, making clocks, etc. 
Still others are engaged in a third kind of work. They 
do nothing but buy and sell such articles, and among these 
are all the merchants 
that we see 



in the 



stores. 




Under these conditions 
the work that one man 
does is not only of one 
kind, but it may be of a 
very narrow kind. For 
example, a man may do 
nothing but drive a team. 
Or he may make shingles, 
or drive nails, or tie up 
sacks of flour, or put in 
the heads of barrels. How 
different this is from the 
work of the pioneers ! 

As a rule, each 
town or city is spe- 
cially interested in 
one or a few kinds of 
business. For exam- 
ple, a town surrounded by extensive woods is likely to 
have an important lumbering industry. Another, in 
the midst of mountains, may make mining its especial 
work; or another, near great wheat fields, may have 
immense flour mills. 

Thus each town, like each man, is apt to be interested 
in the production of few things ; what they raise or manu- 



The city of Rochester, in New York, has grown 
up near these beautiful falls on the Gene- 
see River. Some of the factories that use 
the water power are seen in the picture. 



92 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



facture is sent away in all directions, and the other arti- 
cles, that the people in the town want, are brought to them 
from the many places in which they are produced. Find 
out what is made in your own town, and some of the 
substances that are brought to it. 

When people are so dependent upon others for most of 
the materials that they use, it is clear that roadways be- 
come of great importance. For if the best wheat for flour 
is raised in Dakota, if the best shoes and cloth are made 
in New England, and if the best cotton, corn, and tobacco 
are grown in the South, what good will they do us if they 
cannot be brought to us? 

The pioneers had no roads at first. The early settlers 
who. crossed the Alleghany Mountains into the region 

from which has 
been formed the 
present states 
of Tennessee, 
Kentucky, Ohio, 
Indiana, and 
Illinois had to 
find their way 
through the 
dense forests. 

One of the 
early customs 
was to follow a 
trail, or narrow path, and, instead of using a wagon, to 
carry goods strapped upon one's own back, or else upon 
horses or mules. A number of horses carrying packs 
formed a pack train (Fig. _ 76). Pack trains are still 
common in some places. 




Fig. 76. 

A pack train on a mountain road, carrying supplies 
to a mine on the mountain side. 



INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 93 

A great deal of labor has been spent in making good 
roads. Not only must trees be cut down and stumps and 
stones be removed, but steep places must often be lev- 
eled. Bridges are also necessary, and much work must 
be done to keep the roads in repair. In some places 
where there is much travel, as in eastern Massachusetts, 
great sums of money are spent in making excellent roads. 

There is so much carting in cities that their streets 
must be paved. .Bricks "are often used ; or stones larger 




Fig. 77. 
Train load of sugar-beets on way to factory. California. 

than bricks are laid down side by side ; and in many 
cities, asphalt pavements are common. What kind of 
streets have you seen, and how were they built ? 

We have already (p. 54) considered the importance of 
rivers as roadways. For a long time the Mississippi 
River with its chief tributaries, such as the Ohio, the Ar- 
kansas, and the Missouri, was the only roadway to the 
great city of New Orleans, and to-day these rivers are the 
commercial highways of parts of sixteen states situated in 
the Mississippi basin. Between New Orleans and cities 



94 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

on these rivers numerous boats constantly ply, carrying 
grain and cotton, and goods of all kinds. 

Even with the finest of wagon roads, people and goods 
cannot usually be carried more than twenty to forty miles 
in a day. Boats are somewhat faster ; but railway trains 
travel from four hundred to a thousand miles per day, 




Fig. 78. 
A view in a freight depot at St. Paul, Minnesota. 

and they take both passengers and freight much more 
cheaply than they can be carried in wagons. 

As we ourselves travel on passenger trains, we are in- 
clined to think that the chief business of railways is to 
carry people ; but this is not generally the case. Their 
main business is to carry freight, such as grain, cattle, 
groceries, and machinery; and by doing this they have 
had a great influence upon the development of the country. 



INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 



95 



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For example, a few years ago it would have done little 
good to raise sheep, wheat, and fruit in the far West, be- 
cause they could not be sent to the great cities to be 
sold; but since the railways were built, these industries, 
and many others, 
have become of 
great importance. 
There is therefore 
much more buy- 
ing, selling, and 
carrying — that is, 
much more com- 
merce — than be- 
fore the railways 
were built. 

Letters, news- 
papers, and ex- 
press packages 
are now carried very rapidly on the trains. Formerly 
they were sent in stagecoaches or on horseback ; but 
now many passenger trains have one or two cars used 
for these purposes alone. 

It is clear that good roadways, whether made of soil, 
water, or iron, are a great help to trade. In fact, without 
them there could be very little commerce. The wagon 
roads in the country and city are of great value in carry- 
ing goods for short distances as, for instance, to the river 
wharf or the railway station. Then boats and trains are 
used to carry them farther. 

Not only is there commerce on the land, but, as we have 
already seen (p. 69), thousands of vessels are engaged in 
carrying freight on the ocean. They are constantly pass- 



Fig. 79. 
A freight yard with many freight cars. 



96 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



ing up and down the coast of the United States, going 
from one city to another (Fig. 80) with loads of cloth, 
iron, grain, lumber, and hundreds of other articles. 




Fig. 80. 
A view in New York harbor, showing the vessels corning and goiDg. 

Vessels are also going and coming at all times between 
the United States and foreign countries (Fig. 58), bring- 
ing materials which we need and taking back some of our 
products. This is known as foreign commerce. 



Eeview Questions. — (1) What do merchants do ? (2) Who are 
pioneers ? (3) Describe a house such as the early pioneer was com- 
monly accustomed to live in. (4) Tell what you can of the life and 
the dress of the early settler. (5) Tell about the trips to the nearest 
large town. 

(6) How did the work of each man change when the people began 
to live in villages ? (7) Give some examples. (8) What would you 
expect to see in a general store ? (9) Make a list of articles that are 



INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 



97 



manufactured. (10) Name several industries. (11) How has the 
work of each man changed as great numbers of them have settled to- 
gether? (12) In what ways have men become dependent upon one 
another ? Give examples. 

(13) Show that roads are of great importance. (14) What kind 
of roads did the early pioneers have ? (15) How did they cross the 
streams? (16) Why must streets in cities be paved? (17) In what 
respects are railways better than other roads ? (18) Tell how railways 
have helped to develop our country. (19) What is meant by com- 
merce ? (20) By foreign commerce ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Make a list of the crops grown in your neigh- 
borhood. How is the work done ? (2) Do the same for manufactured 
articles. (3) Tell something of the life of Daniel Boone or that of 




Electric Train, Los Angeles. A network of these electric lines radiates from 
Los Angeles to the beaches and adjacent cities and towns. 



Lincoln. (4) What were some of the things Robinson Crusoe had 
to do for himself ? (5) Write a story describing an early pioneer's 
journey to the nearest large town. 

(6) Visit a general store in the country. (7) Visit a factory, a 
blacksmith shop, or a mill. Describe the visit. (8) Make a list of 
articles that you use which we're probably brought from a distance on 
the railroad or on water. (9) Find out where some of them came 
from. 

(10) Name as many substances as you can that come from over 



98 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



the ocean. (11) Write a story giving the history of the material 
of your dress or coat ; of your shoes. (12) How has the use of elec- 
tricity influenced commercial life? For References, see page 117. 




"Key Route Ferry System" operating between Oakland, Berkeley, and San 
Francisco, California. Upper, Claremont Ferryboat ; Middle, Pier and 
Station; Lower, Electric Train. Thousands of passengers are carried 
daily back and forth over this system. 



X. GOVERNMENT 

Every boy and girl has heard men talk about voting, 
and has noticed how interested they often become as 
election time approaches. 

But do you know what voting is for ? Do you know 
why the day for voting is called election day? Find out 
what you can about voting and election. 

Laws and officers are frequently mentioned when men 
are talking about election. Can you name some laws ; 
and do you know any officers ? You have, certainly seen 
a policeman : what does he do ? You have heard of 
judges, and of the President : can you state anything 
about them ? Can you mention any other officers ? 

In our study of commerce we saw that it required a 
long time to reach our present way of living and carrying 
on trade. So it is with our government. At present we 
have many laws and officers, while long ago there were 
very few of each. Let us see why this is so. 

The farmer manages his farm nearly as he pleases. He 
puts up fences, sells his grain, or feeds it to stock, as 
seems to him best ; and when repairs are needed, he looks 
after them himself. The miller builds a large or small 
mill, uses old or new machinery, grinds much or little 
corn, and makes repairs, as he chooses. In each case, one 
man owns and uses the property. 

But there are some things that no one man owns and 
that all wish to use. This is true, for instance, of roads. 
All people drive or walk over them, yet they belong to no 

99 



100 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

one person. Who, then, should build roads in the first 
place, and who should decide upon and make necessary 
repairs on them ? 

Again, there are public schools which no one man owns 
and which many wish to use. Large yards, good build- 
ings, and good teachers are all desirable, but who should 
provide for them ? This and many other questions arose 
in early days (and still arise) and had early to be dealt 
with in some way. The organization which any com- 
munity has for dealing with these public questions is 
called its government. 

The first permanent English settlement in America was at James- 
town, in Virginia, and its government was managed by seven men 
appointed by the King of England. At first the people had no right 
to -vote, but later, when Virginia came to have a number of settle- 
ments, a body called the House of Burgesses, composed of two men 
from each settlement, was elected to make the rules or laivs for all 
parts of the colony. 

In the New England settlements, government was introduced in a 
different way. The people lived in towns and each town governed 
itself. Town meetings were held which adopted rules or laws regard- 
ing roads and schools and elected officers to enforce them. The same 
meetings passed laws to punish persons who committed crimes, and 
elected officers called constables to arrest offenders. All the people in 
the small towns (Fig. 81), therefore, had a voice in making the laws 
by which they were to be governed. 

When towns became more numerous, there were many 
things which concerned more than one town to be decided. 
For example, in early days questions arose as to the high- 
ways which joined these towns, just as to-day there is the 
question of regulating railway companies which charge 
too much for carrying passengers and freight. In such 
cases laws may need to be passed, compelling them to 
charge reasonable rates. But as these railways are scores, 



GOVERNMENT 



101 



or even hundreds, of miles long, the people of a single 
town could do very little with them. In that case it 
would be necessary for those living perhaps hundreds of 
miles apart to unite in some way in order to make laws. 





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Fig. 81. 
Auburn, nestled in a valley among the hills, fields, and forests of California. 

Again, it is important that there be buildings in which blind people 
may be properly cared for, in which the deaf and dumb may be edu- 
cated, and insane people confined (p. 108). There must also be strong 
prisons where criminals must be sent (Fig. 82). 

Therefore, while there must be a town government, there 
must be also a state government. Virginia started with the 
state government and worked down to the town, or rather 
county, government, while New England began with the 
town and worked up to the state. 

All the men of a state cannot assemble at one point, 



102 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



from a distance of one or two hundred miles, in order to 
attend to such matters. Even if they could make the 
journey at the time appointed, there would be so many of 
them that they could not hear one another speak, and 
little business could be carried on. 

For these reasons it is necessary for one man to be 
elected to represent many others. Where there are a great 
number of people, he may represent many thousands. 




Fig. 82. 
State Prison, Folsom, California. 

Such men, being chosen to represent the others, are 
often called representatives; and because they legislate 
(which means " make laws "), they are together called 
the legislature. 

The legislature meets at the capital {capital means 
head city) of the state. This is a city, often near the 
center of the state, in which there is a line building, 
called the state capitol (Fig. 226), where the representatives 
hold their meetings. 



GOVERNMENT 



103 



We saw that in the town the people not only made 
laws, but elected men to see that they were enforced. 
Such men are necessary for the state also. The leading 
officer, chosen to en- 
force or execute the laws, 
is the governor, some- 
times called the chief 
executive. 

In large cities (Fig. 83) 
there are so many people that 
they must also be governed 
by representatives, as the 
people of the whole state are 
governed. The men who 
make the laws are often 
called aldermen and council- 
ors, and the highest officer, 
elected to execute the laws, 
is known as the mayor. The 
building in which these rep- 
resentatives meet, and in 
which the mayor has his 
office, is the City Hall (Fig. Fig. 83. 

81). While a city is governed Market Street, San Francisco. "Call" 
by its own officers in some Building in the center. Many officers 

matters, it is still a part of a are needed in such a large city. Indeed, 

, , , there are more officers in San Francisco 

state, and elects represents than there are men> women> and chil . 

tives to the state legislature. dren in some towns. 

In our country there are many states, and there are 
some matters that no one state can decide alone, because 
all the others are equally interested in them. For in- 
stance, it would be a great hindrance to travel and trade 
if each state made its own money ; for then each one 
might have a different kind, with coins of different names 




104 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



and weights, and travelers passing from one state to 
another might be obliged to exchange their money for a 
new kind. 



Again, in case of war it would be impossible to make much prog- 
ress if each state acted independently. Perhaps you can give some 
of the reasons why. Mail is another matter that concerns all the 
states, and there are still others besides. Can you mention some ? 

So it is evident that we need a United States Govern- 
ment, as well as state, city, and town governments. The 

reason for calling it the United 
States Government is also plain ; 
for the states have really united 
in order to have one central 
government for some of their 
most important affairs. 

If the people of a single state 
cannot meet in a body to make 
laws, certainly those of the entire 
United States cannot do so. 
Representatives are elected and 
sent, from all the states of the 
Union, to one place where they 
consider the affairs of the whole 
nation. The place where they 
meet is the city of Washington, and it is on that account 
the capital of the United States. Here is a magnificent 
capitol building (Fig. 85)' in which the meetings are held ; 
and there are many other great government buildings 
besides. (See Fig. 85.) 

The representatives from all the foily-six states of the 
Union form what is known as Congress. This corre- 




Fig. 84. 

City Hali, Petaluma, 
California. 



106 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

sponds to the legislature of the states, the congressmen 
making laws for the nation, as the legislators do for the 
state. The members of Congress are called senators and 
representatives. The executive officer of the United States, 
corresponding to the mayor of a city and the governor of 
a state, is called the President. He lives in Washington, 
and his residence is called the Executive Mansion, or the 
White House, since it is painted white (Fig. 85). 

Besides these officers who are elected by the people, 
there are a great many others appointed by the President 
to carry on the government work. Many live in Wash- 
ington, but some, as postmasters, live in other places. 

We have seen how the people in small towns arrange 
for their home government, and how, uniting with those 
in other towns, they elect some men to represent them 
at the state capital and others to represent them at the 
national capital. These representatives are elected by 
means of votes that are cast for them. 

Because the people make their own laws, our govern- 
ment is called a democracy. The first part of this word 
means " people," and the last part " government," so that 
the whole word means "government by the people." Be- 
cause the people do not make all the laws themselves, but 
allow their representatives to make them, it is often called 
a representative government or a republic. 

It is often said that our form of government makes us 
free and equal. People are by no means so free and equal 
in all countries. Under some governments, in Europe 
and Asia, the people have very little to say about the laws 
that shall govern them. Nor do the laws protect them all 
equally, for the high officers say freely what they think, 
while others do not dare to do this. They must obey 



GOVERNMENT 107 

their rulers blindly, just as little children are expected to 
obey their parents. 

Such a government cannot be called a democracy or a 
republic ; it is indeed a despotism, or an absolute monarchy. 
This means that the ruler is a despot, or a monarch, hav- 
ing complete or absolute power to do what he chooses. 
For instance, he puts men to death without any trial, a 
thing that the laws of our country do not allow. China 
and Turkey are examples of this kind of government. 

There are other nations in which the people have more 
freedom than this, but not so much as we have. They 
are allowed freedom to do some things which they wish, 
while in other matters they are compelled to obey, with- 
out even asking any questions. Spain has a government 
of this kind. Since the people have some rights by which 
the monarch's power is checked or limited, this govern- 
ment is called a limited monarchy. Some limited mon- 
archies, however, like England, allow a very considerable 
freedom. 

Review Questions. — (1) Name a few things that no one person 
owns and that all wish to use. (2) How did the pioneers arrange 
for roads? (3) Why was a constable necessary? (4) What are 
laws? (5) Why must a great many towns and villages unite in 
order to make laws? (6) Name some of the objects for which 
they must unite. (7) What is a state ? (8) How are laws made 
in states? (9) Why are the men that are elected called representa- 
tives? (10) What is a legislature? (11) Where does it meet? In 
what building? (12) Where does the governor live? (13) Why 
must large cities also be governed by representatives ? (14) Name 
some of the city officers. Where do they meet? 

' (15) Why should not each state make its own money? (16) Why 
are these states called the United States? (17) Where do the repre- 
sentatives of the United States meet ? In what building? (18) What 
is Congress? (19) What is the White House ? (20) What does the 



108 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



word democracy mean? (21) Why is this government called a repub- 
lic? (22) How are people in many other countries less free and equal 
than we are ? (23) What is a despotism ? An absolute monarchy ? 
A limited monarchy ? Give examples. 

Suggestions. — (1) What persons repair the roads or streets where 
you live ? (2) How are they chosen ? (3) What officers look after the 
schools? (4) Attend a trial to see how it is conducted. (5) What 
are taxes? (6) In what state do you live? (7) What is the name 
of your state capital? (8) How far is it from your home, and in 
what direction? (9) Who is the governor of your state? (10) If 
you live in a city, who is the mayor? Where is the City Hall? 
(11) What does U. S. stand for? 

For References, see page 117. 




Upper picture, Institution for the Deaf and the Blind, Berkeley, California. 
Lower picture, State Hospital for the Insane, Napa, California. 



XL MAPS 




We often wish to represent a country upon a map so as 
to tell, at a glance, its shape, and where the mountains, 
rivers, and cities are located. Such a drawing can be 
made of any place, no matter how large or small it is. 

Suppose we 
desire to draw 
only a school- 
room (Fig. 86), 
which is per- 
haps 32 feet 
long and 32 
feet wide. It 
would not be 
easy to find a 
piece of paper 
so large as that, 
and it would 
not be necessary to do so. A small piece would do, 
because 1 inch upon it could be allowed to represent 
several feet in the room. 

In this case let an inch stand for 16 feet. Since the room is 32 
feet on each side, and there are two 16's in 32, the drawing will be 
just two inches long and two wide. To place the desks and aisles 
properly, we will need to use a ruler divided into sixteenths, for one 
foot in the room represents ^ of an inch on the ruler. 

The ends and sides are marked (Fig. 87) north, east, south, and 
west. The teacher's desk is 3| feet in front of the north wall. There 
is a row of desks about 4 feet from the west wall. The desks are just 

109 



Fig. 8(3. 

Picture of a schoolroom which is 32 feet long and 32 
feet wide. 



110 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



2 feet long, with eight in a row 1 \ feet apart. There are seven rows ; 
and the aisles between them are each \\ feet wide. Here is a map of 

the schoolroom (Fig. 
north .^3»<^ 



87). Measure each 
part to see if it has 
been drawn correctly, 
using a foot rule that 
shows the sixteenths 
of inches. How large 
is the desk? The 
EA8T piano? 



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* ' A 



8 10 W 14 10 

SCALE OF FEET: 1 INCH=1 6 FEET 
OR lW OF AN INCH=1 FOOT 

Fig. 87. 
A map of the schoolroom shown in Fig. 86. 



When a person 
draws in this way, 
letting a certain 
distance on the 
paper represent a 
much greater one, 
he is said to use a 
scale, or to make 
a map according 
to a scale. In the 
schoolroom just described (Fig. 87), the scale is 1 inch to 
16 feet. 

In the next drawing (Fig. 88), one inch represents 140 
feet. According to this scale, find out how large the 
yard and the school building are. Find how far .the trees 
are from each other, from the nearest fence, and from the 
building. 

Can you not make a map of your own schoolroom? What scale 
will you use ? Put in your own desk, but omit the others, if you wish. 

You might also draw a map of your school yard. If you prefer to 
do so, find its size by stepping or pacing it off, making each of your 
steps about two feet long. Measure the building in the same way. 
After having finished these two maps, draw a third one, including in 



MAPS 



111 



it not only the school yard, but also a few of the neighboring streets 
and houses. The scale for this might perhaps be 1 inch for every 
500 steps. 

All maps are drawn to a 
scale in this way, whether 
they represent a school yard, 
a state, the United States, or 
even something still larger. 
Opposite page 152 you will 
find a map of North America. 
On what scale is it drawn? 
Look at some other maps to 
find out the scale. p IG gg 

A map of the school yard shown in the 
picture, Fig. 89. 











School /fouse 


Tree 


Tree 




- 




O/fydrvnt 
ft/tee 



Maps are used a great 
deal to show the direc- 
tion of one place from another. But a person must first 
understand what is meant by north, south, east, and west. 
Probably you already know that. 




Fig. 89. 
A typical rural school of one teacher. 



California. 



112 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 




One of the easiest ways to find the direction is by a 
compass (Fig. 90). This is simply a piece of steel, called 
a needle, that swings about easily and always points to 
the north. It is magnetized, like the horseshoe magnets 
that you have seen, and it points north- 
ward, because something draws it in that 
direction ; but no one knows certainly 
what this " something " is. 

When the stars are shining, one can 
tell which direction is north by the help 
of the Great Dipper. The two stars on 
the edge of the Dipper point toward the 
North Star. It is so bright that it can 
be easily picked out, and it is always to 
the north of us. 

One can also find direction by the help 
of the sun ; for twice a year, about March 
twenty-first and September twenty-first, 
it rises exactly in the east and sets 
exactly in the west. Where does it rise 
in winter? In summer? Which direction is on his right 
and left when a man faces the east? The west? The 
south? The north? 

Northeast means halfway between north and east. Southeast 
means halfway between south and east. What, then, do northwest 
and southwest mean ? 

Point north, east, west, south, southwest, northeast, northwest. 
Walk a few feet in each direction. What direction is your desk from 
that of your teacher? From the desks of your friends? From the 
door? What direction is your home from the schoolhouse? From 
other houses? In what directions do some of the streets extend? 

Now let us tell directions on the map. Lay your draw- 
ing of the schoolroom upon your desk, so that the line 



Fig. 90. 

compass. The 
letter N means 
north. What do 
the other letters 
stand lor ? In 
California the 
needle points a 
little east of 
north. 



MAPS 113 

representing the north side of the room is toward the 
north. Also place yourself so that you are facing di- 
rectly north as you look at the map. If your desk faces 
the wrong way for this, turn round, or put your map 
upon the floor. Now, north on the map is also north in 
the room, and the other directions on the map correspond 
with those in the room. In which direction, on the map, 
is the door from your desk? From the teacher's desk? 
Place your map of the school yard in the same position 
and give the directions. 

You see that the north side of this map is the side fur- 
thest from you ; the east side is on your right, the south 
next to you, and the west is on your left. When a map 
is lying before us, we usually look at it from this position. 

But it is not always convenient to have a map lying 
down, especially in the schoolroom, where it must be hung 
up so that the whole class may see it. 

Let us hang up one of these maps and take particular 
pains to put it upon the north wall. Which direction on 
the map is north now ? It is evident that the north side 
must be up, while east is on the right, south is down, and 
west is on the left. Certain lines, called lines of longi- 
tude, extend due north and south, and others, called lines 
of latitude, east and west. You should drill yourself to 
understand directions on maps. 

Give the directions of objects from one another while the map is 
hanging up. Pat up the map of the school yard, and any others that 
you have, and tell the directions from one place to another. 1 

1 After the children are quite at home in using the map when it is hung 
on the north wall, hang it on other sides of the room and have them give 
the directions. This is easy work if properly graded ; hut many children 
are confused in regard to directions on the map. At the proper time 
show that toward the top of the map is not always north. See Fig. 203. 



114 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

It is clear now what a map is. It is a drawing telling 
something about a country, just as a letter may be some 
writing telling something concerning a friend. When 
you read such a letter, you think of 'your friend, how he 
looks, what he has been doing, etc. So when you look at 
a map, you should think about the country, how it looks, 
how far apart the places are, etc. 

The maps that you have been drawing are flat maps, 
representing the country as if it were a flat surface. In 
Fig. 91 you will see the way in which these maps are 
made to represent the land and water. No attempt is 
made on the flat maps to show just what the country 
looks like. They represent the position and direction 
of towns, rivers, lakes, etc., just as if the country were 
perfectly flat. 

Later on you will study relief maps. These show the 
mountains and valleys. They are pictures of the land as 
it might appear if one were to look down upon it from 
some point far above. 

For References, see page 117. 




The Diamond Match Factory, Chico, California. 





OCEAN 




''■ "''•'•*«!*' * vi '~ •■''.•.■'""■. , .:.''' ! '"-'- , .'.i,- L . ' ';!"". -ji': f; . ; ■»',»:;' '■'.'■■»■■" 







NEW 
ERUNSWICK 











Fig. 91. 

To show what maps mean. The left-hand figures show the country as if you were 
looking down upon it; the right-hand figures represent the same country on 
maps. Tell what you see in each of these. 



REFERENCES TO DESCRIPTIONS, IN PROSE AND POETRY, 
OF TOPICS TREATED IN HOME GEOGRAPHY. FOR 
TEACHER AND PUPIL 



McM. means The Macmillan Co., New York ; Ginn, Ginn & Co., Boston, 
Mass. ; A. B. C, The American Book Co., New York ; S. B. C, Silver, Burdett 
& Co., New York; Heath, D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Mass. 



Section I. The Soil. — King, "The Soil" (McM., $0.75); Tarr, 
" Elementary Geology," Chapters VI, XI, and pp. 475-487 (McM., 
$1.40); Shaler, "First Book in Geology," pp. 24-29 (Heath, $0.60). 
Also other geologies. Nature Study Quarterly, No. 2, October, 1899 
(Cornell University, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N.Y. Free on 
application) ; Kingsley, " Madam How and Lady Why," Chapter IV, 
"The Transformation of a Grain of Soil" (McM., $0.50); Wilson, 
"Nature Study in Elementary Schools. Teacher's Manual," p. 177 
(McM., $0.90) ; Frye, "Brooks and Brook Basins," section on " How 
Soil is made and carried " (Ginn, $0.58) ; Strong, " All the Year 
Round," Part II, sections 7 and 8 (Ginn, $0.30). 

Section II. Hills. — Whittier, " Among the Hills " (poem) ; Whit- 
tier, " The Hilltop " (poem) ; Hutchinson, " The Story of the Hills " 
(McM., $1.50). 

Section III. Mountains. — Lubbock, " The Beauties of Nature," 
Chapters V and VI (the former on forests) (McM., $1.50) ; Jordan, 
" Science Sketches," section on " The Ascent of the Matterhorn " 
(A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, $1.50) ; Whymper, " Chamonix and 
Mont Blanc" (Scribner, New York, $1.20); Whymper, "Travels 
amongst the Great Andes " (Scribner, New York, $2.50) ; Tarr, " Ele- 
mentary Geology," Chapter XVII (McM., $1.40) ; Tarr, "Elementary 
Physical Geography," Chapter XIX (McM., $1.40) ; Shaler, " First 
Book in Geology," Chapter V (Heath, $0.60) ; Kingsley, " Madam How 
and Lady Why," Chapter V, "The Ice Plough" (McM., $0.50). 

115 



116 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

Sections IV and V. Valleys and Rivers. — Tarr, " Elementary 
Geology," Chapters VI-X ; " Elementary Physical Geography," Chap- 
ters XV and XVI (each, McM., $1.40); Shaler, "First Book in 
Geology," Chapter VI (Heath, $0.60) ; Payne, " Geographical Nature 
Studies," sections on " Valleys," " Plants of the Valleys," and " Animals 
of the Valleys" (A. B. C, $0.25) ; Kingsley, " Madam How and Lady 
Why," Chapter I, " The Glen " (McM., $0.50) ; Frye, " Brooks and 
Brook Basins " (Ginn, $0.58) ; Lubbock, " The Beauties of Nature," 
Chapters VII and VIII (McM., $1.50). Poems : " The Brook," Ten- 
nyson ; " The River," Samuel G. Goodrich ; " The Mad River," Long- 
fellow ; " The Falls of Lodore," Southey ; " The Brook and the Wave," 
Longfellow ; " A Water Song,"E. G. W. Rowe; " The Endless Story," 
A. K. Eggleston ; " The Impatient River," E. G. W. Rowe ; The last three 
sections in Payne, "Geographical Nature Studies" (A. B. C, $0.25). 

Section VI. Ponds and Lakes. — Shaler, "First Book in Geology," 
pp. 125-129 (Heath, $0.60) ; Tarr, "Elementary Geology," pp. 188-193, 
and " Elementary Physical Geography," pp. 298-301 (each, McM., 
$1.40) ; Lubbock, "The Beauties of Nature," Chapter VIII (McM., 
$1.50); Payne, "Geographical Nature Studies," section on "Pools, 
Ponds, and Lakes" (A. B. C, $0.25) ;" The Lakeside," poem, by 
Whittier. 

Section VII. The Ocean. — Shaler, " Sea and Land" (Scribner, New 
York, $2.50) ; Tarr, " First Book of Physical Geography," Part III 
(McM., $1.10) ; Lubbock, " The Beauties of Nature," Chapter IX 
(McM., $1.50) ; Andrews, " Stories Mother Nature Told Her Chil- 
dren," section on " Sea Life " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Holland, " The Sea 
Voyage," in "Arthur Bonnicastle " ; Dickens, "David Copperfield," 
Chapter V ; " Robinson Crusoe," Chapter III ; Taylor, " The Waves," 
" Wind and Sea," in Marble's " Nature Pictures by American Poets" 
(McM., $1.25) ; Coleridge, " The Ancient Mariner." 

Section VIII. The Air. — Tarr, "First Book of Physical Geog- 
raphy," Part II (McM., $1.10); "A Summer Shower," " Cornell 
Nature Study Bulletin," No. 1, June, 1899 (free on application to 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y;) ; Murche, " Science Reader," Book 
III, sections on " Air," " Vapor in the Air," " Vapor : What becomes 
of It? " " What the Atmosphere Is," " Ice, Hail, and Snow " (McM., 
$0.40); Frye, " Brooks and Brook Basins," sections on " Forms of 
Water " and " The Atmosphere in Motion " (Ginn, $0.58) ; Strong, 



REFERENCES 117 

" All the Year Round," Part IT, sections 33-39 (Ginn, $0.30) ; Andrews, 
" Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children," section on "The Frost 
Giants " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Payne, " Geographical Nature Studies," 
many excellent stories and poems (A. B. C, $0.25) ; " Nature Pic- 
tures by American Poets " : " Summer Shower," Dickinson ; " Rain," 
De Land ; " Song of the Snowflakes," Cheney ; " Cloudland," Cheney 
(McM., $1.25) ; Wilson, "Nature Study in Elementary Schools," Sec- 
ond Reader, the following poems : " The Rain Shower," " The Wind 
Song," " The Bag of Winds," " The Sunbeams," "Snowflakes," "Signs 
of Rain," " The Rainbow " (McM., $0.35) ; Lovejoy, " Nature in 
Verse," the following poems : "Merry Rain," " The Clouds," " The 
Dew," " The Fog," " The Rain," " The Snow," " The Frost," " Jack 
Frost," " Little Snowflakes " (S. B. C, $0.60) ; Shelley, « The Cloud " ; 
Whittier, " The Frost Spirit " ; Bryant, " The Hurricane " ; Whittier, 
" Snow-Bound " ; Irving, " The Thunderstorm " (prose). 

Section IX. Industry and Commerce. — Payne, " Geographical Nature 
Studies," sections on " Occupations," " Trade or Commerce," " Trans- 
portation by Land," "Transportation by Water" (A. B. C, $0.25) ;> 
Andrews, " The Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children," section on 
" The Carrying Trade " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Whittier, " Songs of Labor." 

Section X. The Government. — Brooks, " Century Book for Young 
Americans" (Century Co., New York, $1.50) ; Brooks, " The Story of 
the United States " (The Lothrop Publishing Co., Boston, $1.50) ; 
Payne, " Geographical Nature Studies," section on " Government " 
(A. B. C, $0.25). 

Section XI. Maps. — Excellent outline maps of states and conti- 
nents, costing \\ to 2 cents each, can be purchased from D. C. Heath 
& Co., Boston, Rand, McNally, & Co., Chicago, and other publishers. 
Maltby, " Map Modeling " (A. S. Barnes and Co., New York, $1.00) ; 
Kellogg, " Geography by Map Drawing " (same publishers, $0.30) ; 
Redway, " The Reproduction of Geographical Forms " ($0.30), and 
" Teacher's Manual of Geography" ($0.65) (both by Heath) ; Frye, 
" The Child and Nature " (Ginn, $0.80) ; Frye, " Sand and Clay 
Modeling " (American Book Co., New York, $0. 10) ; Frye, "Teacher's 
Manual of Methods in Geography" (Ginn, $0.50) ; Kellogg, " How to 
Teach Clay Modeling " (A. S. Barnes & Co., New York, $0.25) ; King, 
" The Picturesque Geographical Readers," First Book, Lesson XIII 
(Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.50). 




118 



Part II 
THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

I. FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH 1 

Its Form. — Hundreds of years ago, before America 
was discovered, men thought the earth was flat. They 
traveled so little that they had no idea of its form or of 
its size. 

A few men who had studied the matter believed that 
the earth was a round ball, and that if one traveled 
straight on in any direction, he would in time return to 
the place from which he started. You can understand 
this by pushing your finger around on the outside of an 
orange, until it comes back to the starting point. 

Christopher Columbus believed this, and went to Spain, hoping to 
obtain money to secure ships for a long voyage to prove it. 

Men were at that time in the habit of going to a land called India, 
for spices, silks, and jewels. To reach India from Spain they traveled 
thousands of miles eastward; but Columbus said that if the earth 
were round, like a ball, India might be reached by going westward 
across the ocean, and the distance would be much less. He therefore 
asked the king of Spain for ships and men to make such a journey. 

The king refused the request, because the idea seemed ridiculous ; 
bat the queen came to his aid, and, at last, on August 3, 1492, he 

1 The use of a globe in this study is very important. Small globes may 
be obtained from dealers in school supplies at a very slight cost. 

119 



120 



THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 



sailed westward on a voyage from which many thought he would 
never return ; but, after a journey of several weeks, land was reached 
on October 12th. 

Thinking he had reached India, he called the natives Indians ; but 
instead of that he had discovered Cuba and other islands near the 
coast of North America; a continent and large ocean still lay between 
him and India. These newly discovered lands became known as the 
New World, to distinguish them from the Old World, where all white 
men then lived. 




Fig. 92. 

Columbus landing in America and taking possession of it in the name of the 
king of Spain. 

After Columbus returned in safety, other men dared to 
explore the New World. One of them, named Magellan, 
started to sail around the earth ; and though he was killed 
when he had reached the Philippine Islands, his ships 
went on and completed the journey. Since then many 
people have made the voyage in various directions, and 
the earth has been studied so carefully that every one 
now knows it is round. 

The great, round earth is also called the globe or sphere. 



FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH 



121 



The reason that it does not seem round to us, is that we 
see so little of it at a time. 

If you see very little of an orange, it will not look round either. 
To prove this, place upon an orange a piece of paper with a small hole 
in it, so that none of the surface is seen 
excepting that which shows through 
the hole. This part does not appear 
round, but flat. 

If we could get far "enough 

away from the earth to see a 

large part of it at once, as we 

are when looking at an orange, 

or at the moon, we would easily 

be able to observe its roundness 

(Fig. 93). 
Size of the Earth. — Our 

sphere is so large that even the 

highest mountains, when compared to the whole earth, 
are no larger than a speck of dust 
when compared to an apple. Lofty 
mountains are rarely more than three 
or four miles high ; but the diameter 
of the earth, or the distance from one 
side to the other, through the center 
of the earth, is nearly eight thousand 
miles. 




Fig. 93. 
The sphere. 




Fig. 94. 

Figure of the earth cut 
in two, to show the 
diameter, the line 
passing through the 
center (c). 



The circumference of the earth, or the dis- 
tance around the outside of it, is about twenty- 
five thousand miles. This is a little more than 
three times the diameter, and you will find 
that the circumference of any sphere is always 
a little more than three times its diameter. 
Prove this with an orange. 



122 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Review Questions. — (1) What did people formerly know about 
the shape of the earth ? (2) What is its form ? (3) Tell the story 
of Columbus. (4) Why did he call the savages Indians ? (5) Why 
was the land he discovered called the New World ? (6) Tell about 
Magellan's voyage. (7) Explain why the earth does not appear to 
us to be a sphere. (8) What is the diameter of the earth ? The cir- 
cumference? (9) The latter is how many times the former? 

Suggestions. — (1) Read something about the life of Columbus. 
(2) Read about Magellan. (3) Find the names of some other early 
explorers and read about them. (4) Trace Columbus's journey on a 
globe to see where he actually went. Find India in order to see 
where he thought he had gone, and notice how one can go to India 
by traveling eastward as well as westward. (5) Make a sphere in clay. 
Measure its diameter with a needle. (6) How many proofs can you 
find that the earth is round ? Find out how we know that it is like a 
ball and not like a cylinder. (7) Write a story about Columbus. 

For References, see page 328. 




El Carmel Mission, near Monterey. Within the walls of this Mission lies 
huried the body of Father Junipero Serra, California's premier missionary. 



II. DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH, AND 
ITS RESULTS 



The Axis and Poles. — The earth seems to us to be 
motionless, while the sun appears to move round it each 
day, rising in the east and setting in 
the west. But in reality neither of 
these things happens. 

Instead of being without motion, 
the earth is turning round at a uni- 
form rate of speed. You have per- 
haps watched a wheel spin about 
on a rod or pin, and have noticed 
that the outside goes rapidly, while 
the part near the pin moves much 
more slowly. It is the same with 
the earth ; and just as we speak of 
the wheel turning upon a pin, so we 
speak of the earth turning upon its 
axis. 

But the axis of a wheel is something real, while the axis 
of the earth is merely a line that we think of- as reaching 
through the earth's center and extending to the surface 
in both directions. 

The two ends of this axis are called the poles of the earth, 
one end being the north pole, the other the south pole. 

Allowing an apple to represent the earth, a knitting needle or a 
stick pushed through its center would represent its axis, and the two 

123 




Fig. 95. 

A drawing of the earth 
cut through to show 
the axis and poles. 



124 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



ends on the surface, the two poles. You can then spin the apple, very 
much as the earth spins (Fig. 97). 

If you were to go directly north from the place where you live, you 
would in time come to the north pole ; or, if far enough south, to the 
south pole. Many men have tried to cross the icy seas (Fig. 100) that 
surround the north pole. If one ever reaches that point, he will not 
find a pole ; but the north star, toward which the axis points, will be 
almost directly overhead. 

The Equator. — Midway between these poles, we think 
of another line drawn around the earth on the outside. 

This is called the equator, be- 
cause all parts of it are equally 
distant from each of the poles. 
On page 121 the distance 
around the earth was given ; 
what, then, is the length of 
the equator ? 

As the earth spins on its axis, all 
points on the surface must go with 
it, as every part of the skin of an 
apple turns with it. Since the earth 
makes one complete turn each day, 
a man at the equator travels twenty- 
five thousand miles every twenty-four 
hours. What a whirling motion that 
is ! It is at the rate of over one thousand miles an hour, while the 
fastest trains run little more than sixty miles an hour. 

Why do not places considerably north or south of the equator move 
as rapidly as those at the equator ? 




Fig. 96. 

A drawing of that half of the 
sphere containing the New 
World, — to show the position 
of the poles and the equator. 



Gravity. — What, then, is to hinder our flying away 
from the earth, just as, when a stone is whirled about on 
a strings it flies away the moment the string breaks ? And 
wh}' is not all the water hurled from the ocean ? 



DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH 125 

The reason is that the earth draws everything toward 
it. If you push a book from your desk, it falls to the 
floor ; and when you spring into the air, you quickly 
return to the ground. All objects are drawn downward, 
because the earth is pulling upon them. It attracts them 
much as a horseshoe magnet attracts pieces of iron. 

The force with which the earth draws all objects toward 
it is called gravity ; and it is because of gravity that the 
water, trees, houses, and we ourselves, do not fly off when 
the earth is turning at such a tremendous speed. 

Sunrise and Sunset. — The sun seems to rise in the east 
and set in the west. This could not be the case if the 
earth did not turn or rotate toward the east ; for all 
heavenly bodies must first appear in the direction toward 
which the earth tarns. This eastward rotation of the 
earth, therefore, explains why the sun seems to rise and 
set as it does. 

Hundreds of years ago people thought that the sun actually rose, 
and, after moving across the heavens, set in the west. We still use 
the words " sunrise " and " sunset " which they used, although we 
know that the sun appears to rise only because the earth rotates. 

Day and Night. — It is this rotation that causes day 
and night. A lamp can light only one half of a ball at 
a time, as you know. So the sun can light only half of 
the great earth ball at one time. This being the case, if 
our globe stood perfectly still, there would always be day 
on the half next to the sun, and night on the other half. 

But since the earth rotates, the place where it is day 
is constantly changing ; and while the sun is setting for 
people far to the east of us, it is rising for those far to 
the west. When it is noon where you live, it is midnight 
on the other side of the earth. Thus each place has its 



126 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



period of daylight and darkness ; and as the earth makes 
one complete rotation every twenty-four hours, the day 
and night together must last just that length of time. 




Fig. 97. 

An apple lighted by a candle on one side, to illustrate the cause of day 

and night. 



Review Questions. — (1) What motion has the earth ? (2) What 
is the axis of the earth ? (3) The north pole ? The south pole ? 
(4) Represent the axis and poles by using an apple. (5) Walk toward 
the north pole. Toward the south pole. (6) What is the equator? 
(7) How long does it require for the earth to turn completely around 
once? (8) What rate of travel is that, for a point upon the equator? 
(9) Why are we not thrown away from the earth ? (10) Give sev- 
eral examples showing what is meant by gravity. (11) In what 
direction is the earth rotating? (12) How does that explain sunrise 
and sunset? (13) What causes night ? (14) What would be the 
result if the earth did not rotate ? (15) When it is noon here, what 
time is it on the other side of the earth? (16) How long must the 
day and night together last ? Why ? 



DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH 



127 



Suggestions. — (1) Point out the axis of a wheel; of a top; of a 
rotating ball; of a spinning globe. (2) Mark the two poles on an 
apple or ball, and then draw a line for the equator. (3) Mold a 
sphere in clay, and show the poles and the equator. Cut it in half, 
and mark a line for the axis. (4) Find exactly how many miles a 
point on the equator moves each hour. (5) Use a horseshoe magnet 
to attract pieces of iron. (6) Use a globe, or apple, and a lamp to 
show why the sun appears to rise and set, and why it is day on one 
side while it is night on the other. (7) Watch the stars in the east 
some night, to see which way they appear to move. (8) Why do not 
the clouds appear to move westward also ? (9) Is the sun always 
shining during the day? Why, then, do we not always see it? 
(10) Who was Atlas? AVho was Aurora? (11) Find out what the 
ancients supposed became of the sun each night. (12) When it is 
noon here, what time is it one fourth of the distance around the earth 
to the east? To the west? 

For References, see page 328. 




Sunset at Fort Wrangel, Alaska, 10.15 o'clock, p.m 



III. THE ZONES 



NORTH POLE 




Boundaries of the Zones. — The sun's rays feel warmer 
at noon than toward evening because the sun is more 

nearly overhead at noon, and 
the rays then reach us nearly 
vertically. 

For the same reason the sun 
seems hotter in summer than in 
winter, and in some parts of 
the earth than in others. 

The hottest part of the earth 
is near the equator, for in that 
region the sun at midday is 
directly over the heads of the 
people. That is the case, for a 
part of the year, as far north as 
the line on the map (Fig. 98) marked tropie of Cancer, 
and as far south as the one marked tropie of Capri- 
corn. Point to them on Figs. 119 and 120. These 
lines are more than three thousand miles apart, a dis- 
tance greater than that across the United States from 
Boston to San Francisco ; and over that vast area the heat 
is intense, or torrid. Those who live there wear only 
the very lightest clothing, and the savages have almost 
none (Fig. 99). 

But farther north and south the heat becomes less and 

128 



Fig. 98. 
A map of the zoiies. 



THE ZONES 



129 



less intense, because the rays of the sun, even at noon, 
approach the earth at a greater slant. There is a region, 
then, on each side of this broad hot belt, where it is neither 
very hot nor very cold, but temperate. 

Finally, near the poles, the rays are very slanting, as 
they are in our early morning or late afternoon. There 
it is so cold, ov frigid, that the ground never thaws out, 
the ice never entirely disappears, and very little vegeta- 
tion can grow. 

Torrid Zone. — Thus one part of the earth has a hot 
climate. There the 
noonday sun is al- 
ways so directly over 
the heads of the in- 
habitants that they 
never have winter. 

This hot region 
extends entirely 
around the earth, 
like a great belt, and 
the equator is in the 
middle of it. This 
is called the tropical 
belt, or the tropical 
or torrid zone, and 
sometimes the equa- 
torial belt. Why the 
latter name ? 

Temperate Zones. — On the north and south sides of this 
are the two temperate zones. People living in the north 
temperate zone find the sun to the south of them at noon, 
even in summer ; and their shadows always fall toward 




Fig. 99. 

Philippine savages hunting ; their home is in the 
torrid zone, and they need almost no clothing. 



130 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

the north. But in the south temperate zone the midday 
sun is always in the north. Which way must the shadows 
fall in that zone? 

Notice the position of the sun at midday where you live, and also 
the direction and length of your shadow at that time. In which of 
the temperate zones do you live? 




Fig. 100. 

Cape York Eskimos, Greenland, in their summer dress, standing by their 
sleds on the ice-covered sea. 

Frigid Zones. — North of the north temperate zone, and 
south of the south temperate, are the frigid zones, where 
the sun is never high in the heavens, but even at midday 
is near the horizon. There the shadows are very long, as 
they are with us in the late afternoon. In consequence, 
while at the equator there is never any winter, near the 
poles there is never any real summer weather. 

The northern of these zones is called the north frigid 



THE ZONES 131 

zone (Fig. 100) ; the southern, the south frigid zone. 
They are also known as the polar zones, since they sur- 
round the poles; 

It is so cold that no one has ever been able to reach either of the 
poles. These are surrounded by miles and miles of snow and ice, and 
vessels hundreds of miles away from them are in danger of being 
crushed by ice, or held by it so that they cannot move. 

Hemispheres. — The half of our sphere north of the equator is 
called the northern hemisphere (or half sphere), the southern half, the 
southern hemisphere. The earth is also divided into halves by a circle 
running north and south through both poles, the western half, con- 
taining the New World, being called the western hemisphere, and the 
eastern half, containing the Old World, the eastern hemisphere. 

Review Questions. — (1) What is the cause for the great heat in 
the torrid zone ? (2) What are its boundaries ? (3) What other zones 
are there? What are their boundaries? (4) In which direction does 
the midday sun lie in each zone? (5) In which direction do the 
shadows then fall ? (6) Why should the heat grow less, the farther 
one travels from the equator ? (7) Why has no one ever been able to 
reach either pole ? (8) Which part of the earth has no cold weather ? 
(9) Which part has no hot weather? (10) Point out the zones in 
Fig. 98. (11) Represent them in a drawing of your own. (12) 
Name the hemispheres and tell where each is. 

Suggestions. — (1) Find out more about the reason why the sun's 
rays are hotter when the sun is overhead than when it is low in the 
heavens. (2) Write a story telling about the changes in clothing 
you would need to make in passing from the north to the south pole. 
(3) In which direction would you look to see the sun at noon on such 
a journey? (4) How might the changes in heat affect the growth of 
trees and other plants ? (5) How would the direction of your shadow 
change? Its length? (6) If there were no watches or clocks, how 
could yOu tell the time of day from the sun ? (7) Find out about 
some of the men who have tried to reach the north pole. (8) In 
which zone would you prefer to live ? Why ? (9) Explain how some 
places in the temperate zone are warmer than some in the torrid zone. 

For References^ see page 328. 



IV. HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH, AND ITS 
EFFECTS 

Heat in Mines. — While much is known about the sur- 
face of the earth, very little is certain about its interior. 
The reason for this is that people cannot go far down 
below the surface in order to see what is there. 

In some places there are mines reaching fully a mile 
below the surface. This may seem a great depth ; but 
when it is remembered that it would be necessary to go four 



Fig. 101. 

Melted rock, from a volcano in the Hawaiian Islands, flowing over the face 

of a precipice into the water. 

132 



HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH 



133 



thousand times as far to reach the center, it is plain that 
this is really a short distance. A mile below the surface 
of the earth is not so much as the thickness of the skin of 
an apple, compared with the thickness of the apple itself. 

In all of these mines, and in many deep wells, men find 
solid rock, usually covered at the surface with soil ; but 
no one has ever gone beyond this rock. 

It is interesting to note that the farther miners have 
dug down into the earth, the warmer they have found it. 
The thermometer rises about one degree for every fifty or 
sixty feet, and some mines, as they have been deepened, 
have become so hot that men could no longer work in them. 

Melted Rock. — This has led to the belief that, if it were possible 
to go still deeper, the earth would be found to grow hotter and hot- 
ter, until, several miles below the surface, it might be hot enough to 
melt rocks. 

Another fact leading to the same belief is that, in some regions, 
melted rock, called lava, actually flows out of the earth, and then 
cools to form solid rock (Fig. 101). In some places so much lava has 
flowed forth at different times, and collected about the opening called 
the crater, that a moun- 
tain peak has been built. 
Such peaks are called 
volcanoes (Fig. 102), and 
some of them are many 
thousand feet high. 

The Earth's Crust. 

— From a study of 
the earth it seems 
certain that, al- 
though the outside 

b , , , Fig. 102. 

is now cold, it was . . H 

Vesuvius, in Italy, sending out Java, ashes, and 
Olice hot, and that steam during an eruption some years ago. 




134 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



the mass within is still hot. It may be compared to a 
biscuit that is still hot inside, although its crust has become 
cool. In fact, this cold outside part of the earth is gener- 
ally called the earth's crust. 

Cause of Mountains. — It was stated on page 20 that 
some parts of the earth have been raised to form mountain 
ranges, while others have been lowered to form valleys. 
We are now ready to explain how this has happened. 

You have, perhaps, seen a blacksmith 
put a tire upon a wheel. He heats the 
tire so hot that it expands, and it is 
then easily placed over the wheel. 
But when the iron cools it shrinks, so 
that the tire then fits the wheel tightly. 
The hot interior of the earth is 
undergoing a similar change, since 
every year it is slowly growing cooler, 
and, therefore, shrinking or contracting. 
This allows the cool crust to settle ; 
but, being too large, it wrinkles, or 
puckers, causing the rocks to bend and break, and forming 
great mountain ranges and valleys. 




Fig. 103. 

An apple wrinkled 
through drying. 



One sees something of the same kind in an apple that has become 
dry and wrinkled (Fig. 103). It has dried because some of the 
water beneath the tough skin has gone into the air as vapor ; thus 
the inside has been made smaller. The skin of the apple, like the 
crust of the earth, has then settled down and become wrinkled. 



Cause of Continents and Ocean Basins. — The moun- 
tains and valleys are not the largest wrinkles on the 
earth's surface. As the crust has settled, some portions 
have been lowered several miles further than others, 



HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH 



135 



and in these great depressions the waters have collected, 
forming the oceans, which in places are four or five 
miles deep. 

Those great portions of the earth's crust which rise above 
the ocean are called continents ; and the highest mountain 
peak upon them is fully eleven miles above the deepest 
part of the ocean. 

Change in the Level of the Land. — The contracting of the earth 
has caused many changes, and is still causing them. Some parts of 
the land have risen out of the ocean, and other parts have sunk 
beneath it. Perhaps the place where you live, even though it be 
among the mountains, was once below 
the ocean. This can be proved, in 
some places, by finding certain shells, 
called fossils, in the rocks. 

Ages ago these shells were parts of 
animals living in the ocean ; but on 
the death of their owners they became 
buried in theihud and lay there for 
centuries until the layers of mud be- 
came slowly hardened into rock. This 
was later lifted above the water, and 
then frost, rain, and rivers wore the 
upper layers away, bringing the fossils 
to light. 

We have already seen (p. 2) how rock is changing to soil and being 
washed from the laud into the ocean. We now learn that this settles 
upon the ocean bottom, hardens into rock, and then, perhaps, is lifted 
into the air. These changes are very slow, but they are going on all 
the time. Places once inhabited by men are now beneath the sea, 
and others where they now live have risen above it. 

Review Questions. — (1) What is known about the temperature 
of the earth below the surface? (2) What does that suggest? 
(3) What other proof of this conclusion is there? (4) What is a 
volcano ? (5) What is the crust of the earth ? (6) What happens 
as the interior cools ? (7) Compare this with the drying of an apple. 




Fig. 104. 

A rock containing many fossil 
shells. 



136 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



(8) How have the ocean basin sand continents been formed? (9) What 
do fossils in the rocks prove? 

Suggestions. — (1) Collect pictures of volcanoes. Of earth- 
quakes. Read about some volcanic eruption. (2) Make a drawing 
of a volcano. (3) Dry an apple and notice the change. (4) Not all 
rocks contain fossils; but examine those in your section to find if 
they do. (5) If you live near a beach, notice how shells are covered 
by the sands. (6) If a mine were a mile deep, what would be the 
temperature at the bottom, if the average temperature at the sur- 
face is 45° ? 

For References, see page 328. 




Whitney Domes, Kern River Canon, California. 



V. THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 



Land and Water. — The greater part of the land is found 
in the northern hemisphere, the greater part of the water 
in the southern (Figs. 106 and 114). 





Fig. 105. 

Land (on left-hand side) and water (on right-hand side) hemispheres. 
sphere means half sphere ; that is, half the earth. 



Hemi- 



It is possible to divide the earth into halves, in one of which — the 
land hemisphere — nearly all the land is situated, while in the other — 
the water hemisphere — there is very little land. This is shown in 
Fig. 105. 

The Continents 

In Fig. 106, or, better, on a globe, notice that two 
great masses of land extend from the north polar zone. 
One of these lies in the western hemisphere, and is the 
land on which we live ; the other is in the eastern 
hemisphere. 

137 



138 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

North America. — The western land, which is better 
shown in Fig. 107, is broad near the north pole, and tapers 
down nearly to a point just north of the equator, having 
the form of a triangle. What is the name of this part ? 




Fig. 106. 

The northern hemisphere, showing the land ahout the north pole, Eurasia in 
the eastern hemisphere, and America in the western. 

Show where New York, Washington, and Chicago should be on this 
map. (See the map, Fig. 120.) Point also to your home. Find 
some rivers, mountains, peninsulas, gulf s, and other forms of land and 
water. 

South America. — South of North America, and con- 
nected with it by a long neck of land, the Isthmus of 
Panama, lies the continent of South America. The two 



THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 



139 



continents together are called the two Americas, forming 
the New World which Columbus discovered (p. 119). 
Notice how much alike they are in shape ; draw triangles 
to show this. 



Through what zones does North America extend? (See Fig. 98, 
p. 128.) South America? Point to the places where there is snow all 
the time ; to the part 

where there is never Nocfh Po/e. 

any snow. Where 
must the Eskimo 
girl, Agoonack, one 
of the Seven Little 
Sisters, have lived? 
Read about the Eski- 
mos on page 208. 

Tell how the cli- 
mate would change 
if you were to travel 
from the northern 
end of North Amer- 
ica to the southern 
end of South Amer- 
ica. What changes 
would you expect to 
find in the plants? 
In the clothing of 
people? Write a story 
about such a journey. 

On page 141 are pictures of some of the wild animals of South 
America (Fig. 109). What wild animals live in North America? 
Collect pictures of them. Have you ever seen any of them? 

Eurasia. — East of us, across the Atlantic Ocean, is the 
Old World (Figs. 108 and 115). More land is found there 
than in the New World, and the largest mass of it is 
called Eurasia. 




Fig. 107. 
The half of the sphere containing the New World. 



140 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

The northern part of Eurasia is in the North Frigid 
zone, on the opposite side of the north pole from North 
America (Fig. 106), and extends a great distance east 
and west. Find for yourself how far south it reaches, 
and through what zones it passes. 



NORTH 




SOUTH" 

Fig. 108. 

A hemisphere, showing a part of Eurasia and Africa. 

Long ago, before Columbus made his voyage to the 
New World, the most civilized people lived in HJurope, 
the western part of that great continent. 

The homes of Jeannette and Louise, two of the Seven Little Sisters, 
were in that country. If you have read the story, can you not tell 
something about each of them ? 







ONDOR 



Pig. 109. 

Some of the animals of South America. 

141 



142 



THE EARTH AS A TV HOLE 




The eastern 
part of the con- 
tinent is called 
Asia. 

Read in the 
" Seven Little Sis- 
ters " about Ge- 
mila, the child of 
the desert, and of 
Pen-se, the Chinese 
girl, whose homes 
were in Asia. 

Europe is 
usually consid- 
ered one conti- 
nent and Asia 
another, al- 
though, as you 
can see from the maps, especially Fig. 106, they are not so 
clearly separated as the other continents are. For this 
reason Europe and Asia are often called one continent, 
Eurasia, the name being made up of " Eur," from Europe, 
and " Asia." 

Point toward this continent. Walk toward it. Which is probably 
its warmest part ? 

Africa. — South of Europe is the continent of Africa. 

Here lived the little dark girl, Manenko, one of the Seven Sisters, 
and this is the place the negroes came from. 

In what zones does Africa lie ? How does it compare 
with South America in temperature ? In shape ? In what 
direction would you start in order to go directly to 
Africa ? 



Fig. 110. 
The home of Jeannette among the Swiss mountains. 



THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 



143 













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HL *id 












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Hf^l 


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M\3 




^^m ■ 



Fig. 111. 
The tiger, one of the wild auimals of Africa and Asia. 

Australia. — - South of Asia are many large islands called 
the East India Islands (Fig. 120). Find the zone in 
which they lie. Southeast of these is a large island 
known as the continent of Australia (Fig. 119). In what 
zones is it ? 

The Oceans 

The Arctic and Antarctic. — r There seems to be a great 
deal of land ; but, as we have learned (p. 67), three 
fourths of the earth is covered by ocean water. The 
water around the north pole (Fig. 106) is called the 
Arctic Ocean. Find it on a globe. 

There are many islands in this ocean, and the water between them 
is covered with ice. The climate is so cold "that there are very few 
people, and no crops of any kind can be raised. Here the Eskimos 
live, hunting the polar bear, seal, and walrus to obtain meat for food, 
fur for clothing, and oil for fuel and light (see p. 208). 



144 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Much less is known about the Antarctic Ocean (Fig. 
114), which surrounds the south pole, and in which there 
is also a great deal of floating ice. 

The Atlantic. — Extending from the Arctic to the Ant- 
arctic is the Atlantic Ocean, having the Old World on the 
east and the New World on the west. This is the water 
that we cross in going to Europe, and many of the things 
we eat and wear are brought across it. Can you name 
some of them ? Find what continents the Atlantic 
bathes. 

The Pacific. — The water west of North America is 
called the Pacific Ocean, which is the largest of all oceans, 
occupying more than one third of the earth's surface. 
What continents does it bathe? Walk toward it. 

The Indian. — There is still another great body of water 
called the Indian Ocean (Fig. 108). It lies south of 
India in Asia, and between Africa on one side and Aus- 
tralia and the East Indies on the other. 

The Ocean Bottom. — The depth of the ocean water 
varies considerably ; on the average it is a little over two 
miles, but in some places it is more than four miles deep. 




Fig. 112. 
One of the deep-sea fish. 



THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 



145 



In this immense body of water are millions of animals, 
some of them, as the whale, shark, codfish, and seal, being 
of use to man. 

The bed of the ocean is mainly a great plain, where it 
is as dark as our darkest night, because the sunlight can- 
not pass through so much water. In consequence, the fish 
living there have little use for eyes, and some have none. 

The mud which covers the bottom is in many places 
made up of the shells of tiny animals, many of them 
even smaller than a pinhead. Some of the chalk used in 
schools was just such mud before it was raised to form 
rock layers on the dry land. 

Mountains in the Oceans. — While most of the bottom of 
the sea is a plain, some parts are not so level. Here and 
there are mountain peaks, and chains of islands, extending 
above the sea far away from the continents. Many of 
these are portions of mountain chains rising above the 
water ; but many, 
like the Hawaiian 
Islands, are vol- 
canoes which 
have been built 
up by lava flow- 
ing from the in- 
terior of the earth 
(p. 133). 

Coral Islands. — 
In the open ocean 
there is another 
interesting kind 

of island known as the coral island (Fig. 113). Some 
very tiny creatures, called coral polyps, build hard, limy 




Fig. 113. 

A ring-like coral island, called an atoll, in the open 
ocean. 




146 




t» en 

. cS 



<1 




147 



148 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



coral, such as you have no doubt seen. Where the ocean 
water is warm, as in the torrid zone, these little animals 
live in immense numbers, millions of them around a single 
island. 

Each polyp resembles a fully blossomed flower ; and 
they vary greatly in color, being white, pink, purple, red, 

yellow, brown, and many other 
colors. It is a truly beautiful 
sight to see them spread out 
in the water, looking like a 
flower garden in the sea (Fig. 
118). 

When these coral animals 
die, the hard coral part re- 
mains. Then other polyps 
build upon these skeletons, 
and this is continued until the 
the water is reached and coral islands are 




Fig. 118. 

A piece of coral, with the polyps 
projecting from the hard coral 
like a bunch of flowers. 



surface of 
formed. 



Review Questions. — (1) Name the five continents, counting 
Eurasia as one. (2) Write their names. (3) Walk toward each of 
them. (4) Tell what you can about each. (5) Where is the Arctic 
Ocean? The Antarctic ? (6) Tell something about the people and 
animals of the Arctic region. (7) What oceans touch North Amer- 
ica? (8) Name five oceans. Which is the largest? (9) What are 
the conditions on the ocean bottom ? (10) In what ways are islands 
in the open ocean formed? (11) How are coral islands made ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Make an outline drawing of each of the con- 
tinents. (2) Of each ocean. (3) Collect pictures of the animals, peo- 
ple, and scenery of the continents. (4) Write a story about one of the 
pictures. (5) Obtain pieces of coral for the school collection. 

For References, see page 329. 



VI. MAPS 

The maps that have been thus far used are all hemi- 
spheres, and represent the earth as it would appear if 
we looked down upon it from above. Such maps are 
especially desirable because they call attention to the 
roundness of the earth ; but they are so difficult to make 
that it is customary to represent the earth on flat maps 
instead. 

In Fig. 119 you can see the difference between the two. 
While the lower ones show the roundness of the earth, 
the upper two represent it as quite flat. Although they 
are unlike, the latter show the position of the land and 
the water quite as plainly as the former. Since this is 
true, and since it is much easier to make the flat maps, 
these will be the ones chiefly used hereafter in this book. 
But in studying flat maps one should always remember 
to think of the earth as round, and not as a flat surface. 1 
It should also be noticed that on flat maps it is impossible 
to show correctly both the shape and the size of countries. 
Compare Greenland and South America in Fig. 119 with 
the same countries in Fig. 120. If you should draw a 
picture on half of a toy balloon made of rubber, and then 
stretch the rubber flat, would the picture look the same ? 
Examine Fig. 120 also. 2 

1 The teacher should see that this is done by frequent use of a globe. 
It is advisable to have one large globe and several small ones, so that each 
pupil may have one for frequent use. 

2 These maps (Figs. 119 and 120) should be carefully studied, the 
pupil following map questions given by the teacher to cover form, location, 
etc., of continents, oceans, and important places. 

149 




Fig. 121. 

Relief map of North America. 

(Modeled by E. E. Howell.) 

150 



VII. NORTH AMERICA 

Physical Geography. — Here is a relief map of the con- 
tinent on which we live. What great highland do you 
find in the west ? In the east ? In what direction does 
each extend ? Which is the broader and higher ? Where 
is the lowest land between these two highlands ? Trace 
the Mississippi River. Name some of its largest tribu- 
taries. (You will find these rivers on the map, Fig. 123.) 
Find the Rio Grande River in the south ; the St. Law- 
rence River in the northeast ; the Yukon in the north- 
west. What two great rivers flow westward from the 
Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean ? 

Notice the slope east of the Appalachian Mountains. 
Is it longer or shorter than that west of the Rockies ? 
What, then, are the main slopes in North America? 
Upon which of these slopes do you live ? Point as nearly 
as you can to the place where your home is. 



Fig. 122. 

Section across United States, from east to west, to show mountains, plains, 

and principal slopes. 

Find New York and San Francisco on Fig. 123. If you were to 
go westward from the former to the latter, you would travel over 
many hills, valleys, and mountains. Some of the slopes would be 
short and gentle; others would be very long, and sometimes gentle, 
sometimes steep. Here is a drawing showing the chief slopes you 
would cross in making that journey. Point on Fig. 121 to the slopes 
A, B, C, D, E, and F, of the drawing. Draw a section like this. 

161 



152 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 

Political Divisions. — You will remember that Spain was 
the nation that helped Columbus make his discovery of 
America. The Spaniards afterward settled in the south- 
ern part of the continent, and introduced the Spanish 
language there. That is still the chief language spoken 
in Mexico, in the southern part of North America. Mexico 
became independent of Spain many years ago. 

Other nations also sent explorers and made settlements. 
Among these were the English, who settled chiefly along 
the Atlantic coast, and finally came to own the greater 
part of the continent north of Mexico. 

In time the English who lived in the central portion of 
eastern North America waged war against England, and 
chose George Washington as their leader. On the 4th of 
July, 1776, they declared their independence of England, 
and finally won it completely. This part became known 
as the United States; but the region to the north, which 
England was able to keep, and which she still possesses, is 
called Canada. Find each of these countries on the map 
(Fig. 123). Point toward Canada and Mexico. 

Besides these three large nations, several smaller ones 
occupy Central America, which lies south of Mexico. 

Of course there must be some place where one country ends and 
another begins. Such a place is called a boundary, and the boundary 
lines between the different nations are shown on this map by heavy 
lines. Point them out. 

In some parts you see that a natural boundary has been chosen, 
such as a river or a chain of lakes ; but it is often only a straight line, 
cutting across rivers, lakes, and mountains. Examine the boundary 
of the United States to determine how much of it is natural. 

Where the boundary is only a straight line, it is marked by a row 
of posts or stone pillars a few rods apart, and if you were to cross from 
one country to another you could easily see them. 




lOO'Lungitude West 9Q°lrum Greenwich 

Fia. 123. 




K Street, Sacramento. United States Post Office Building on right, 
with tower. 




One of the principal business streets of Stockton. 




A business street in San Jose. 




One of the main business streets of Fresno. County Court House in the distance. 




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fefo 



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Sioux City 
A S KA^tT 



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UNITED STATES \*" 

WESTERN SECTION 

Scale of Miles 
lli 1 I 

50 100 200 see 

Capitals of Countries © 

Capitals of States ® 

Other Cities • 




T"\# E 




M E xf I 



Laredo 
O 



Houston 



San Antonio 



iriveston 







GUl.F 
OF 



MEXICO 



SENSMVIKS C0.,N.y 

is _ _1 



from 105 J Greenwich 



Fig. 124. 




vJhtUii-ie 
KVT 



JefTerson°City 
MISSOURI 

,„zai7i Mts. 
• Fori Smith 












o 




! ARKANSAS, ) - 

tittle Boo>v§/ A t \- \\dixYaxA^ 



8 S% 



Mobjlf/^L -B^Lalla|i^!!* 

Bonge M^x F^ n ~L\~ ' ®'o 



Westou 



s 



\st- A r 



uvitte 



V 



^v 



M JB -* r 



UNITED STATES 

EASTERN SECTION 

Scale of Miles 



50 100 



J 



Capitals of Countries ' ® 

Capitals of States. -® 

Other Cities- • 




V 



c^ 



t> 









Fig. 124. 




Street scene in San Bernardino, California. Courthouse on the left. 




Fifth Street, San Diego. 



VIII. THE UNITED STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) What waters border the United States? 
(2) What countries? (3) What is the greatest distance across the 
United States, east and west ? (Notice the scale of miles on the map.) 
North and south ? (4) Where are the main divides ? (5) Do you see 
any part that has very few streams? What does that suggest to you? 
(6) Find New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, Washington, 
Chicago, New Orleans, St. Louis, Denver, and San Francisco, and tell 
where each is. 

When our war for independence began there were thir- 
teen large groups of settlements, each of which was abso- 
lutely independent of the others, called colonies, which at 
the close of the war became known as states. Our flag still 
has its thirteen red and white stripes to remind us of them. 

There were at first only thirteen stars in the blue field of the flag ; 
but one has been added for each new state until now there are many 
more. Count the stars on a flag to see how many states there are. 

For a long time after the war for independence, the in- 
terior and western parts of what is now the United States 
formed an unknown wilderness belonging to other nations, 
and inhabited chiefly by Indians. The United States has 
obtained part of this land by war, and part of it by pur- 
chase, so that the country is now several times as large as 
it was at first. Many large states have been added ; but 
there are still- some parts, called territories, which have 
not yet been made into states. 

In order that they may be more easily studied, the 
states are usually divided into groups. Let us take first 
the northeastern group called the New England States; 
and afterwards, others. 

153 



IX. NEW ENGLAND 

Map Questions. — (1) Name the six states included in New Eng. 
land. (2) Which is largest ? (3) Which smallest ? (4) Which has 
no seacoast? (5) What mountains are found in these states? What 
rivers? (6) Remembering what was said on pages 72 and 96, where 
would you expect to find the largest cities ? (7) What is the capital 
of each state ? (8) Point to Cambridge in Massachusetts, where Long- 
fellow lived. (9) To Boston. Walk toward Boston. (10) In what 
direction would one sail from there to reach England ? (See Fig. 120.) 




Fig. 125. 

A view of Boston, the largest city in New England, showing its harbor and 
some of the ships in it. 

Names. — The settlers who came to this part of North 
America called it New England. Several. names on the 
map also commence with New, as New Hampshire and 
New Haven. Find others. What reason can you give 
for their using that word so often? 

Seaports. — If you examine the map, you will notice that 
the coast is very irregular, with many small bays, promon- 

154 



West 70° from Greenwich 68° 




NEW ENGLAND STATES 



Capitals ® OtUtsr Cities • 



Fig. 126. 



NEW ENGLAND 



155 



tories, and fine harbors. Draw the coast line, showing 
some of these. 

The excellent harbors have determined the places where 
great cities should grow up. The largest of all is Boston, 
and two others are Portland and Providence. Point 
them out. What di- 
rection is each from 
the others, and in 
what state is each ? 

Fishing. — Some of the 
towns are located on the 
coast because the men who 
live in them are fisher- 
men, and must have their 
homes near the water. In 
the early days, cod, mack- 
erel, and halibut were 
easily caught near the 
shore ; but now it is often 
necessary to sail far from 
land, the men being gone 
perhaps for weeks before 
filling their vessels (Fig. 
67, p. 79) with fish. 

Portland, BosTosr,and Gloucestek 1 are important fishmarkets, the 
latter being the largest fishing port in the country. Fish is sent from 
there to all parts of the United States, and even to foreign countries. 

Farming. — A fine harbor by itself cannot make a great 
city. As you remember (p. 63), this is important simply 
because it renders the loading and unloading of vessels 
both easy and safe. But unless there were many people 

1 Whenever cities, rivers, etc. , are mentioned in the text, the pupils 
should be required to locate them on the map, giving state and 
position. 







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Fig. 127. 

Fishermen hoisthig halibut fro^i a fishing 
vessel at Gloucester. Notice that these 
fish are as large as a man. 



156 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



supplying and needing materials, there would be little 
need of using these harbors. 

One might expect that there would be much farming 
here ; but there are so many hills and mountains, and the 
soil is often so thin and stony, that the farms are usually 
small, supplying only vegetables, milk, butter, and other 
products to be used in the cities near by. Some of them, 
far from the cities, have been abandoned because the land 
is so hilly and the soil so poor. 

Quarrying. — But while the rocky hills and mountains hinder farm- 
ing, they often furnish excellent granite, which is used for buildings 
and street pavements. White marble, used in monuments, is also 
found among the mountains near Rutland, Vermont; and slate, for 
roofs of houses, and for writing slates, is obtained both in Vermont 
and Maine. 




Fig. 128. 
Lumbermen engaged in floating logs downstream from the forest. 



NEW ENGLAND 



157 



Lumbering. — Since many of the hills and mountains 
are still covered with forests, much lumber is obtained 
from them, es- 
pecially from 
the mountainous 
part of northern 
Maine. As you 
can see from the 




map (Fig. 126), 
there are very 
few towns in this 
section, most of 
the country be- 
ing wooded. 

During spring 

freshets, when the winter snows are melting, the logs are 
floated downstream, often to a place where ocean steamers 



Fig. 129. 

Map showing the regions from which considerable 
timber is now being obtained. 




Fig. 130. 
An outing on skis over the snow in New England during winter. 



158 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

can reach them. Here they are sawed into lumber and 
loaded upon vessels to be carried in all directions. Ban- 
gor, on the Penobscot River, has become a large city, 
chiefly because of its lumber industry. Other towns on 
the Kennebec and the Androscoggin rivers have grown 
in the same way. 

Manufacturing. — But we have not yet come to the most 
important occupation of the New England people. The 
short rivers, having their sources in the uplands, flow with 
swift course to the sea, and are often interrupted by rapids 




Fig. 131. 
Great cotton-mills on the Merrimac River at Manchester, New Hampshire. 

and falls. In one way this is a disadvantage, because 
vessels cannot go far upstream ; but in another way it is 
a great advantage. Can you see how ? 

On page 53 you learned that streams with swift cur- 
rents and waterfalls furnish the best water power." Where 
such power is abundant, wheels can be turned and great 
factories be run. This makes it clear why the chief in- 
dustry of New England is manufacturing. In fact, the 
New England states are among the most important manu- 
facturing states in the Union. 

The principal rivers that furnish water power are the 
Merrimac, Connecticut, and the three in Maine already 



NEW ENGLAND 159 

mentioned (p. 158). Find each of these, and trace its 
course from source to mouth. Make a drawing to rep- 
resent each one, and locate upon it some of the large 
cities. 

There is so much manufacturing in New England, by 
the use of water power and steam, that shiploads of cotton 
are sent there to be made into cloth at such cities as Man- 
chester (Fig. 131), Lowell, New Bedford, and Fall 
River. Great quantities of wool are brought to be made 
into woolen goods at Lawrence and Providence, which 
also manufacture cotton goods ; and thousand of hides of 
cattle and other animals to be made into boots, shoes, gloves, 
and leather of all kinds at Lynn and other cities. Iron 
and other metals are also brought to be made into knives, 
needles, watches, firearms, machines, and hundreds of 
other articles at Worcester, Bridgeport, Springfield, 
New Haven, and Hartford. In Boston itself there is 
also a vast amount of manufacturing of different kinds. 

Find each of these cities ; tell in what state it is and upon what 
river, if the name is given on the map. All of the other cities 
marked on the map are also engaged in some kind of manufacturing. 
Perhaps the shoes or some of the clothing that you wear were made 
in one of these places. 

Commerce. — Some of the manufactured articles are 
shipped to all parts of the United States, and even to 
other countries. It is to a considerable extent this im- 
mense amount of manufacturing that furnishes employ- 
ment to the people along the coast, and has caused the 
large cities to grow about the best harbors. 

Not only do the persons living in the interior produce 
great quantities of goods to be shipped away, but they 
require others to be shipped in. Much of their food and 



160 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

also the cotton, wool, and hides must be brought to them. 
The amount of shipping is therefore very great, and this 
is one of the chief reasons why Boston, Portland, and 
Providence have become large cities. To the first two 
goods are sent by rail from the far West to be shipped 
abroad. 

Review Question's. — (1) Why is it an advantage to New Eng- 
land that its coast is so irregular? (2) Mention some of the larger 
seaports. (3) Name the principal fishing port in the country. 
(4) Tell what you can about the farming. (5) What kinds of stones 
are found, and for what are they used? Where are they found? 

(6) Describe the lumbering. Which state produces the most lumber ? 

(7) Explain how the lumber trade has determined the location of Ban- 
gor. On what river is it situated ? (8) Why cannot vessels go far 
up the New England rivers? (9) How are the rivers useful for man- 
ufacturing? Name several that furnish water power. (10) What 
goods are manufactured there? In what cities ? (11) What articles 
must be shipped to this section? Why? (12) Tell how such com- 
merce affects the size of the coast cities. 

Suggestions. — (1) What stories of New England do you know ? 
(2) Read about the Puritans. (3) Go into a fish store to see a cod- 
fish, mackerel, halibut, etc. (4) Examine some granite so that you 
will know it the next time you see it. (5) Find a monument made 
of white marble. (6) Find a house whose roof is covered with slate. 
(7) Start a collection for the school by bringing specimens of use- 
ful stones. (8) Try to find out more about lumbering in Maine. 
Hunt for pictures illustrating this work. (9) Start a school collec- 
tion of pictures from magazines, etc. (10) How many articles can 
you mention that are made of wood? (11) Get some friend to take 
you through some kind of a factory, and tell the class what you saw. 
(12) Draw a sketch-map of New England, locating the rivers, capital 
cities, and principal towns. 

For References, see page 329. 




A View of Niagara Falls. 




.Tig. 132. 



X. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) Which of the Middle Atlantic states bor- 
der on the Atlantic Ocean? (2) Which does not? (3) Which is 
smallest? (4) How does Pennsylvania compare in size with New 
England ? (You will find the scale on each map.) (5) Name the 
chief rivers and tell where they are. (6) Which state extends far- 
thest east ? Which farthest west ? (7) What natural boundaries do 
you find between them ? (8) What are the names of the mountain 
ranges ? (9) Which state has no mountains ? 

The Coast Line. — Observe that, as in New England, 
the coast line of the Middle Atlantic states is very irregu- 
lar. At three places the sinking of the land has caused 
the ocean water to reach far into the land, forming Chesa- 
peake, Delaware, and New York bays. Find each; also 
draw the coast line to show these bays. 

The Seaports. — The largest cities in New England 
were found along the coast on bays similar to these, though 
smaller. The same is true here. New York, on the last- 
named bay, is the largest city in the United States and 
next to the largest in the world. Southwest of it is 
Philadelphia on the Delaware, just as far up the river 
as large ocean vessels can go. Farther south, near the 
head of Chesapeake Bay, is a third great city, named 
Baltimore, in the state of Maryland. 

Reasons for the Great Size oe New York City 

Cities near by. — Near New York harbor we find not 
only New York, but Jersey City, Newark, and 
Brooklyn, which has lately become a part of Greater 
New York. Other cities like Paterson are not far 

161 



162 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




away. That is, not only one, but several great cities 
have grown up here very near together. Let us see why 
more people should have crowded together here than in 
any other part of the New World. 

One reason is that from New York harbor, where hun- 
dreds of vessels 
may anchor at 
one time, goods 
can be shipped 
over the Atlan- 
tic Ocean to 
various parts of 
the world. 

Water Route 
to the Interior. 
— A second 
reason is that 
goods may also 
be shipped westward by water. Looking at the map, you 
see that New York Bay is at the mouth of the Hudson 
River. The sinking of the land has caused the ocean 
water to enter this river, and thereby to make it so broad 
and deep that large vessels can ascend it as far as Albany. 
Long ago people saw that if they could construct a 
waterway from the Hudson River to Buffalo, they 
could go by water all the way from New York to Buffalo ; 
and then, since the Great Lakes are connected with one 
another, they could go all the way to the western end of 
Lake Superior. Use the scale of the map (Fig. 124) 
to find how many miles that is. Through what lakes 
would the route lead? 

The scheme was finally carried out by building the Erie 



Fig. 133. 

The broad Hudson River at Poughkeepsie where a 
railway bridge crosses it. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



163 



Canal from Buffalo, on Lake Erie, to the Mohawk Valley, 
then down that valley to Albany. (See map, Fig. 132.) 

As the Western country became settled, more and more 
goods were shipped to and from New York. When rail- 
ways began to be built, many of them also led there. In 
this way New 
York has become 
a great city, and 
the chief ship- 
ping point for a 
large part of the 
United States. 
Let us see what 
some of the 
goods are that 
are sent to New 
York. 

Lumbering. — 
On the map 
(Fig. 132) you 
will find the 
Adirondack 
Mountains north 
of the Mohawk, and the Catskill Mountains south of it. 
Among these there are still forests, as in Maine, so that 
lumbering is an important industry there. 

Farming. — These mountains do not cover all of the 
state ; most of it is more level, and has a rich soil upon 
it. Farming is therefore much more important than in 
New England. Besides butter and cheese, considerable 
hay and grain are produced, and an abundance of fruit, 
such as apples, pears, peaches, plums, and grapes. 




Fig. 134. 
In a salt mine, a thousand feet beneath the surface, 
in central New York. The walls and sides of these 
tunnels are glistening white salt. 



164 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Salt. — An extensive bed of salt is found deep down 
in the earth, in the central part of the state. Salt is 
taken from it in many places, and it was the important 
salt industry that determined the location, and much of 
the early growth, of Syracuse. 

Manufacturing. — Again, in this state, as in New Eng- 
land, there are many streams with waterfalls. Manufac- 
turing has therefore become extensive. 




Flu. 335. 
Niagara Falls, the greatest cataract on the western hemisphere. 

In Rochester, at the falls of the Genesee Biver (Fig. 75, p. 91), 
are many flour mills. The cities on the Mohawk are also engaged in 
manufacturing. What are their names? In Buffalo, the second 
city in size in New York State, much use is made of power from the 
Niagara Falls, twenty miles away. Troy, near Albany, makes 
shirts, collars, and cuffs. These cities, as you see, are situated along 
the water route already mentioned. Why ? What others do you find 
along this route? 

In New York City itself there is a vast amount of manufacturing, 
steam being used for power. In fact, in many places, even where 
there is water power, factories now often use steam ; but when the 
manufacturing began, people could not use steam because they did 
not know how, and the first manufacturing towns were built where 
there was water power. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 165 

Commerce. — So much manufacturing, together with 
the farming and other industries of the state, helps to 
explain the great amount of commerce. People are con- 
tinually sending goods to New York and receiving others 
in exchange. It should be remembered, too, that cities 
hundreds of miles farther west, in the neighborhood of 
the Great Lakes, are connected with New York by water 
and rail, and are engaged in trade with it. 

From this it is plain why the largest city in America is 
situated where it is, and why other cities have grown up 
about New York harbor. 

Reasons why Philadelphia has become a Great 

City 

Cities near by. — Philadelphia, like New York, has 
other important cities near by. Directly across the Dela- 
ware is Camden in New Jersey ; and to the northeast, 
also in New Jersey, is Trenton, where a clay is found 
that is made into dishes and earthenware. To the south- 
west is Wilmington in Delaware, where many ships and 
railway cars are built. 

Farming. — The soil and climate in this neighborhood 
are well adapted to growing such fruits as peaches, pears, 
apples, grapes, and berries. On this account there are 
many factories for canning fruit in some of these cities. 

To the northwest of Philadelphia are the Appalachian 
Mountains. Note the direction in which they extend 
across the state. The valleys among the mountains, and 
the plateaus and lowlands east and west of them, are fer- 
tile enough for good farming, especially wheat raising, 
sheep raising, and dairying ; but lumbering is still carried 
on amonfl; the mountains. 



166 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




Fig. 136. 
Rotary snow plow clearing the railroad tracks in New York. It is pushed 
through the snow drifts hy two or more locomotives, and whirls the snow 
off to one side in a great arch as high as a telegraph pole. 

Iron. — Several substances found beneath the soil in 
Pennsylvania are its most important products. 

In the first place, a great amount of iron ore is found 
there. When dug out of the. ground this often resembles 
reddish earth, and it never looks exactly like iron ; but 
by melting the ore, iron is obtained from it, and is then 
shipped to many places to be made into stoves, engines, 
guns, ships, knives, and a thousand other things. Pitts- 
burg and Allegheny are noted for such manufacturing; 
also Reading and Harrisburg, the capital, as well as 
Philadelphia and its neighboring cities. See how long a 
list you can make of articles made of iron and steel. 

Coal. — It requires an immense amount of fuel to pro- 
duce the heat necessary to obtain iron from the ore and 
to make it into the many articles mentioned. Fortunately 
great quantities of coal are also found in this state, soft 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



167 




Fig. 137. 
Panorama of Schuylkill Coal Regions. 

coal being mined in the western part near Pittsburg 
and Allegheny, and hard or anthracite coal in the . east- 
ern part near Scranton and Wilkesbarre. 

Much coal is 
needed for stoves 
and furnaces in 
houses, and also for 
producing steam for 
factories. There is, 
therefore, a great 
demand for it, and 
every year it is 
shipped by thou- 
sands of car loads 
to New York, Phil- 
adelphia, and else- Fig. 138. 




168 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

where, often to be loaded upon ships to be sent to Boston and many 
other cities. 

Oil and Gas. — Gas, much like that used in lighting houses, and 
petroleum, the oil from which kerosene is made, are also found beneath 
the soil in the western part of Pennsylvania and New York. There 
is so much gas in some places that it is burned as a fuel in manufac- 
turing glass and other articles, as at Pittsburg and elsewhere. 

Commerce. — The products of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, 
and Delaware, principally fruit, grain, lumber, iron, coal, 
gas, and oil, together with the manufacture of iron goods, 
have helped to make Philadelphia a great. citj% As in 
the case of New York, many of these substances are sent 
to Philadelphia to be manufactured ; and, like New York, 
Philadelphia is one of the great manufacturing cities of 
the country. Many other materials are sent there to be 
shipped away by water ; and many shiploads of goods, for 
people living in other cities farther west, are unloaded at 
Philadelphia. 

Other Cities 

Baltimore. - — Baltimore has grown in much the same 
way. Its harbor is excellent, and both coal and iron can 
easily reach it from Pennsylvania. Like Philadelphia, 
Boston, and New York, it has an important commerce and 
much manufacturing. 

Oysters abound in the shallow waters of Chesapeake Bay, and are 
shipped from Norfolk, Annapolis, and Baltimore. 

Washington. — Another large city in this section is 
Washington, on the Potomac River in the District of 
Columbia. Although large vessels are able to reach it, 
it owes its importance not to commerce, but to the fact 
that it is the National Capital, where there are many great 
government buildings (Fig. 85, p. 105), and thousands of 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



169 



men and women employed in the service of the govern- 
ment. Can you describe some of the work which thej r 
are required to do ? 

Virginia and West Virginia. — Richmond, on the James 
River, is the capital and most important city of Virginia, 
the state in which Washington and Jefferson lived. The 
western part of the state is mountainous, as is the eastern 




Fig. 139. 
Pennsylvania Avenue from the Treasury. 

part of West Virginia, the mountains furnishing lumber and 
iron. Also in West Virginia, as in Pennsylvania, there is a 
great amount of coal, oil, and gas. This leads to extensive 
manufacturing, especially at Wheeling, on the Ohio River. 
Farming is the chief work in Virginia. . The climate is 
so mild that tobacco can be raised much more profitably 
than in the states farther north. The tobacco plant, which 
white men found the Indians smoking, has a large leaf 
that is picked and dried, and then made into cigars and 



170 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

other forms in which tobacco is used. Factories are 
needed for such work, and they represent one of the main 
industries of Richmond, which is a great tobacco market. 

Review Questions. — (1) Name the chief seaports. Walk to- 
ward each as you name it. (2) What reasons can you give for the 
great size of New York City? (3) Make a drawing of the Hudson 
and Mohawk rivers. (4) What cities do you find on the Erie Canal? 

(5) What can you say about the farming in New York State? 

(6) Where is the salt found? (7) What about manufacturing in 
New York ? (8) What are the chief farm products near Philadelphia 
and Wilmington? (9) Why is iron manufacture so important in 
Pennsylvania? (10) Tell why Philadelphia has become a great city. 

(11) Where are Pittsburg, Allegheny, Scranton, and Wilkesbarre? 

(12) For what is Baltimore noted? (13) Washington? (14) For 
what industry is Richmond noted? (15) Where are Richmond and 
Wheeling? (16) In which state is each of the cities mentioned? 

Suggestions. — (l)Make a list of all the cities named. (2) Are 
any of them not situated either upon the seashore, on rivers, or lakes? 
(3) Which is farther north, Buffalo or Boston? (See Fig. 124, oppo- 
site p. 153.) (4) Find what some of the chief difficulties are in build- 
ing canals. (5) Examine some iron ore and add it to the school 
collection. (6) Visit a factory where iron goods are manufactured. 

(7) Why does Buffalo promise to be a growing city? (8) Why have 
Pittsburg and Allegheny a good location ? (9) Give two reasons why 
Wilmington is a good place for shipbuilding. (10) Collect some 
pieces of anthracite or hard, and bituminous or soft, coal, and com-, 
pare them. (11) Head the story of Rip Van Winkle. The mountains 
described are the Catskills. ' (12) Draw an outline map of these 
states and include the capitals. (13) Draw each of the states from 
memory. (14) Find out some facts about Washington, — its build- 
ings, the people who live there, and what they do. (15) On the map 
(Fig. 124, United States) the word Delaware is not spelled out be- 
cause there is not room, but Del. is put in its place. Find out the 
abbreviation for each state in this group and in New England. Also 
for the other states as you study about them. 

For References, see page 330. 









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SOUTHERN STATES 

WESTERN SECTION 

Scale of Miles 

' ! 1 ■ ' 

50 100 200 300 

Capitals of States o Other Cities • 



101° Longitude 



West 97° from 

Fig. 140. 



Greenwich 03° 



L.L POATESENGfl'G C0..N.Y. 




SOUTHERN STATES 

EASTERN SECTION 

Scale of Miles 

i 50 i5o 2U0 300 

Capitals of States Other Cities • 

Longitude West 



FiS. 140. 



XI. SOUTHERN STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) Where are the mountains in this group of 
states? (2) Where are the plains? (See map, Fig. 140.) (3) Notice 
the direction in which the land slopes. (4) Name the gulf on the 
south side. (5) How is Texas separated from Mexico ? (6) What 
large peninsula do you find on this map? (7) Which is the largest 
state? (8) How does it seem to compare with South Carolina in size? 
With Pennsylvania ? (9) About how many miles is it by sea from New 
Orleans to Boston? (See map, Fig. 124, United States.) (10) Notice 
how near these states are to the Tropic of Cancer. (See map, Fig. 123, 
opposite p. 152.) What does that tell you about their climate ? 

Relief. — The Appalachian Mountains extend into Ala- 
bama, passing across several of the Southern states. 
Name them. There are also some low mountains in west- 
ern Arkansas and Missouri, and a portion of the Rocky- 
Mountains in western Texas. 

But this part of the country is mainly a great region of 
plains. Near the mountains, the plains are quite high 
above the sea ; but near the coast there is a strip of low, 
level land known as the coastal plains. 

Other low land is found along the Mississippi River, 
where there are broad flood plains protected from the river 
floods by banks, called levees. Notice especially the Mis- 
sissippi delta, and explain how it happens that the land 
projects so far into the gulf. (See pp. 50 and 51.) 

We observe, then, that in this group of states are some 
mountains ; between these and the coast are high plains 
or plateaus ; then along the coast are low plains. Let us 
see what these three sections produce. 

171 



172 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




Fig. 141. 
Children playing on a bag of cotton, just picked. 



Coal and Iron. — Coal and iron are found among the Ap- 
palachian Mountains here, as in Pennsylvania. You would 

expect from this 
to find manufac- 
turing centers 
near the moun- 
tains ; and Bir- 
mingham, At- 
lanta, Chat- 
tanooga, and 
Knoxville 
are engaged in 
manufacturing 
of many kinds. 
Find each and 
tell what state 
it is in. 
Cotton. — On the plains the soil is usually fertile, the 
climate is warm, and there is plenty of rain everywhere 
excepting in 
western Texas 
and Oklahoma. 
For these rea- 
sons farming is 
the chief occu- 
pation. The 
southern farms 
are commonly 
called planta- 
tions, and the 
principal crop 
on the higher plains, away from the coast, is cotton. 




Fig. 142. 

A small cotton field and a negro home. The cotton 
bolls look like white flowers. 



SOUTHERN STATES . 173 

The cotton plant grows to an average height of two to eight feet. 
It has a white blossom, and after the flower is gone a small pod, called 
the boll, grows. This boll enlarges until it ripens, when it bursts, 
revealing a mass of fluffy white fibers, called cotton. 

The cotton is picked in the autumn by men, women, and children, 
and then placed in a machine called the cotton gin; this separates or 
combs the cotton from the seeds. The cotton is then packed in bales 
like hay, and shipped away to be made into thread, cotton cloth, and 
other goods. Name more of them. 

Corn and wheat are also grown upon these higher plains, 
and tobacco, especially in the northern part of this section. 




Fig. 143. 
Cattle on the Great Plains. 

Ranching. — The drier plains of western Texas are 
covered with grass, which furnishes food for herds of 
horses, cattle, and sheep. The work of raising these 
animals is, therefore, one of the most important industries 
of this state. The section of land over which a man's 
cattle roam is not called a farm or plantation, but a cattle 
ranch, and the business is known as ranching. 

Since a few men can look after several thousand horses, cattle, or 
sheep, few people are needed to carry on ranching. On that account 
there are not many towns in the western part of Texas, as you can see 
on the map. Dallas and Ft. Worth are the principal centers of 
trade for this region. 



174 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




Fig. 144. 
Cutting sugar cane in Louisiana. 




Fig. 145. 
A pineapple field in Florida. 



Sugar and Rice. — 
On the low, swampy 
plains near the coast 
and along the lower 
Mississippi River, rice 
and sugar cane are 
raised. Rice seeds 
grow on a grasslike 
plant in wet soil. 
Sugar cane looks 
much like corn ; but 
the juice of the stalk 
is so sweet that it can 
be made into sugar 
and molasses. 

Fruits. — Besides the 
crops mentioned, the low 



SOUTHERN STATES 175 

plain of Florida produces fruits. It is so far south that its climate 
is warm enough for oranges, lemons, and pineapples ; probably your 
grocery store has such fruits from Florida and California. 

Lumbering. — Some of these plains, both the high and the low ones, 
are still wooded. It is from them that the hard or Georgia pine, so 
often used in floors, is obtained. There are forests also in the moun- 
tains, so that there is an abundance of timber in this region. Which 
Northern state already studied has a large amount of timber ? In 
what section would you expect the climate to prevent the growth of 
forests ? 

Manufacturing. — Knowing what is produced in the 
Southern states, we naturally expect much manufactur- 
ing. There are coal, iron ore, corn, wheat, sugar cane, 
cattle, sheep, cotton, and lumber, from each of which use- 
ful articles can be made. Tell what they are. There is 
also water power in many places. 

For a long time most of the manufacturing in the 
United States was done in New England. Great quan- 
tities of cotton and other raw products were sent there 
from the South to be manufactured. Then some of the 
finished articles were brought back for use in the South. 

This condition has now greatly changed. The Southern 
states still ship much cotton to New England and Europe, 
but much is retained for manufacture at home. No other 
part of the country has shown such rapid progress in manu- 
facturing as the Southern states. They are one of the 
greatest cotton-manufacturing regions in the world. 

Near the coal fields important iron and steel manufac- 
turing industries have arisen ; near the forest regions are 
many lumber mills. The abundance of coal, iron, and lum- 
ber has made possible the manufacture of farm implements 
and other articles of iron and wood. Each year the impor- 
tance of manufacturing in the South is rapidly increasing. 



176 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



The variety of manufactures is far too great to list. Besides arti- 
cles of iron, wood, and cotton, tobacco is made into many forms ; wool 
into cloth and other woolen goods; hides into leather; cotton seed 
into cotton-seed oil ; sugar cane into sugar and molasses ; the sap of 
the pine tree into turpentine, tar, and rosin. 




Loading and unloading goods on the levee at New Orleans. Notice the mules, 
one of the most common draft animals of the South. 



New Orleans. — The principal cities in the South are 
those that have grown up at the best shipping points, 
that is, on the ocean harbors, on the rivers, or some of the 
great railways. 

The greatest city in this entire section is New Orleans, 
in Louisiana, on the Mississippi River about one hundred 
miles from its mouth. 



SOUTHERN STATES 177 

Like New York it can be reached not only by railway, 
but also by vessels from across the Atlantic Ocean, and by 
others from distant inland cities. Ocean ships are able to 
pass up the river from the Gulf ; and river boats can reach 
it from cities far up the Mississippi and its tributaries. 

These facts help to explain why New Orleans is a great cotton- 
shipping port. Quantities of cotton-seed oil, sugar, molasses, and rice 
are also sent from there. Manufactured goods, as cloth and shoes, 
and foods, as meat and corn, are brought to this center, and there 
distributed in all directions. Further up the river are Vicksburg 
and Memphis, which are important river ports. 

Other Seaports. — Not many large cities are found on 
the Gulf coast. One reason is that the entrances to the 
harbors are often blocked by sand bars. 

The largest seaport west of New Orleans is Galveston. 
"What goods are probably shipped from this harbor ? 
Remember the low coastal plains and the high dry plains 
to the west. 

Along the coast east of New Orleans are Mobile, a great cotton 
port, Tampa, and Pensacola, a lumber port. Why lumber? On 
the Atlantic coast are Jacksonville, the chief shipping port for 
Florida oranges, Savannah, Charleston, and Wilmington. Find 
each of these and tell what state it is in. In the interior are Atlanta, 
Columbus, and Augusta. 

Oklahoma. — A few years ago the section north of Texas, now 
called Oklahoma, was known under the name of Indian Terri- 
tory, a place set aside by our government as a home for some of 
the tribes of Indians. But later, these Indians were collected in 
the eastern part of Indian Territory. The western part was called 
Oklahoma Territory and was opened up to white people for settle- 
ment. Later the two territories were united in the new state of 
Oklahoma. 

Climate. — The climate of the Southern states is so mild that many 



178 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Northern people go South in winter to escape the cold. In the South- 
ern-part it rarely snows, and flowers are in blossom in midwinter. 
Do you know why the song birds of the North go there in winter? 




Fro. 147. 
Some of the Indians who live in Indian Territory. 



Review Questions. — (1) In which Southern arid Northern states 
are the Appalachian Mountains found? (2) Tell what you can 
about the Southern plains. (3) Near what cities are coal and iron ore 
mined? (4) Name and describe the chief crop on the higher plains. 
(5) AVhat is done with the cotton after it is picked? (6) What is 
the occupation of the people in western Texas? Why? W T hy so few 
towns there ? (7) What two products are raised on the warm coastal 
plains and flood plains? Describe each. (8) What fruits are raised 
in Florida? Why raised there? (9) What about the lumber indus- 
try? (10) Why should one expect to find much manufacturing there? 
(11) What kinds are there? (12) Why not more? (13) Wliy are 
there so few large cities? (14) Which is the largest of all? Why? 
(15) What goods reach this port? Why? (16) Name and locate 
the principal seaports. (17) Make a list of the Southern cities studied, 
and locate each. (18) Tell the direction of each from New Orleans. 
(19) Tell something about Oklahoma. 

Suggestions. — (1) Draw the coast line of these states. Add the 
rivers, the state boundaries, and principal cities. Put in the capitals. 



SOUTHERN STATES 



179 



(2) Represent the group in sand, showing the mountains and plains. 

(3) Examine some cotton. Make a collection of articles made 
from cotton and add them to the school collection. (4) Inquire of 
your groceryman where his oranges and other fruits were grown. 
(5) Examine some rice. (6) You can plant and grow not only 
wheat, but rice, cotton, sugar cane, and other plants in the schoolroom, 
especially if you can induce some one who has a hothouse to allow 
you to start them there. (7) Why is not New Orleans as large as 
New York? (8) How are the people of New England and those of 
the Southern states dependent upon each other in the work that they 
do? (9) Beginning with the New England states, name those thus 
far studied that have mountains in them. (10) Name and locate 
the chief cities in all these states. (11) Draw the entire Eastern 
coast line, and put in the larger cities and rivers. 

For References, see page 330. 




A river swamp in Mississippi. 



XII. CENTRAL STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) Name the states in this group. (2) Which 
ones border on the Great Lakes ? How can goods be shipped from 
them by water to New York? (3) Name the Great Lakes. Which 
is highest above the level of the ocean? Which is lowest? (4) Into 
what do they empty? (See Fig. 123.) (5) What are the chief rivers 
in this group? (6) Into what do their waters empty? (See Fig. 124, 
United States). (7) Which states drain mainly into the Missouri River? 
(8) Into the Mississippi? (9) Into the Ohio? (10) Which one into the 
Great Lakes? (11) Find Chicago. Can you think of any reason why 
it should be a great city — the greatest in this section? (12) In which 
of these states did Abraham Lincoln live ? 

Raw Products. — This group of states has four cities 
larger than New Orleans, and several others that are not 
very much smaller. 




Fig. 148. 

A "bunch" of cattle on a farm in Western Kansas. 

180 



^ Turtle Mts. 'K'Z~££o?m 

K 



Grafton.. 7. 
■Devils r~f&^ li 



k 

i 
I 



>Laki^f^ 



Woods 

Bed Lake 



Grand Forks! 



R T 



D A KlO t/ A 

Jamestown^ ^( |\o' £«4e /«o«ci 

Bismarck * %» FargcJ/i 







'LeecJi 
Lake 



VbH \MJ N N E Sj'O T A jSuperlor 

I Wah D RtL»Hi Braine/Fd£^j[ e 



■Aberdeen. 



Fergus Falls 

St. CloudV*V 



%&M o u 



BJac/f 



T H 



'tf^ 6 



Xio6r«ra] 



(TTaterto wi 

*> A KoVl 



Huron Jfi 
Mitchell < 



Siouxi 

V* f4hs 



"•5 



StillwVat 



Minneapolis/^^ i sis' 

I'Rea'WW* 

Faribault V3* 
■Winona 



-v 

Mat 



Slom City 



JV E 



B R 



o 
p 



t!!P NorfblF* 

£ K A 

V£ Fremont 

r orth Platte V -~~i T*- ' , 

Omafta '{.Council Bluffs 

^^^^ndliSndP^ """"pk 



\o 



ou City 



w 



4? i 
Des Moines c 



MarsballtOjt! * Cedar*C _. 
ask -^ R M ^\ Clinton 



Kearney 

Bpiiubliean 
J%% — _ . ^ 



attamouthT" 
Wi 9 



^Ottffttw 



Nebraska!"*" 
BeatrifcV ° Uj 



O j > 



i« 



A N 



?»•* 



s 

HutchinsonV, 

•VKlchltS 



Topeka\~Y' Kansas City 

Lawrence. SedaIia . 

Jeffersor 



i *==M»^C\ t _. _. \Arkansas City\j 

CENTRAL STATES ~ 

WESTERN SECTION 



Scale of Miles 
5 26 60 Ti loo 



~200 




W,' ^ 



Rapids 

Da vcn'j port, 
Muscatiner 




Hannibal 
Moberly 




Pig. 149. 



g V T E It z 






V..^ Hough; 

/>^f JtS^f ^'^Wquette^ ' Isj 

i 4 * — ■ Ij**-^ 3& llsbpennng <\^ Vv «y >- ".«J5I__ 

[Superior J*]^*" 1 * | J^f ^Sj)^ Sault Ste.jMawe^ 



* 



^SUE ROY ALE 







> 



4a 



CENTRAL STATES 

EASTERN SECTION 

Scale of Miles 
6 25 ^0 75 100 20 

Capitals of States © Otter Cities o 

o 

4 - -* A 



fli 



( 



Z^>i 









V 



,d!4 



V 



^ 



-\< 



Str. qf»p^ 

i & fl *cSeboygan 

. ... WMeapniiuee 
; armette jtf£JE/lZ-& ) — 

"Wauiauj* 

Eau Claire < (& een \B&y „ , 

WISC Q^N S<* NT I *Y /.Manistee 

< / ApiietonJ' J. t> / Wr\ , . 

S& /kJ&tH) w»x \ oVrwest r $ 

"WlnonVV. fca*?-»fi"*S<'»»y ghLboygan J J'CJBay City* 

V. «, X >J Fond rf W I & r~~ I * ■—•» — • i , 

La Crosse \. la u \Lae 7 ^ V ^/ I y /Saginaw \ lftj 

L..j = e^ w 4 t0 } n Milwaukee ¥f;H v {j. 0Tt * m °*f °S^r^<. 

>^ Janesvillef. J ^ J Battle Creek 1 petroU^^VOil I V >^* >. 

Buba,u„V— . fcSirfTl ^ ^Xzoo' iacLn^ nn Artor£^ ^/Tt 

P*VO W A V' reep0r r yl- Evansto^Jl H, . A _ ^-H-iflrian* /§i«T, A 



W 



-v. y_r^ t,t ' Ai.rori^ 

DavenjporUJ^jj i ine _ . Joliet 



0* 






vd 



Elgi 



' >J ' J 0tSwaVv 
Rankalt' 






. Logansport^ 

I /--^^Mariotf- 



Keokuk^ 

Hannibal • 

M 

02 



("East S^Lo lis 
Be/IteviUe 



nliety^"^ >4tf°«/A* GoBben / ^-4-' Sandusky ,?„. Ivj^i 

•- MassiUo^verpooljrV^: 

tiina -, "* EastPjveru" /. -w 1 

• Mansfield " TQ \..A\ \ 

i c . olun X I z SVvlU» ( •-— *v 

Sprihgneld IS \ L/ \ 

7\»aYton II llariettaWI 
/ VjUilliootbe >ip ar Versburg 

I /i Hamilton *> I T 1 -, a T 

i jAfiiBcmiiatfo ^/vLiS5a^. s \ 

^SnyV V-^\ TO. 



Galesburg 

J^lpomftiswm] ^^/Lafayette 



Muncii 



Dknville • j) 



AadersclnS- / f 

. . 'Decktur J * X % Kic^mon 

J.| Jacksonville _^,- jj. Indl^ftiaP 



[Terre Haut* 



7 



^/EvansTlUel^JLOUiSVUleYexlngton-v % ^> > 

Henderson 3 . 0ensDoro A A. y I """/V. 



/O 

■^Mammot^fei, 



I 5 \ y \ t-WpkduJahOT% Bowling Green ^^-0 iia £sg&^£: J~TT 



Gfreemvie! 



89 ° LoDgit'ude West froi 



Fig. 149. 




.c ^ s ri 
~ .a be 



be O - '' 



CENTRAL STATES 



181 



The entire section is mainly a great plain, whose soil is 
favorable to farming. 

In the "western part of Kansas, Nebraska, and the two 
Dakotas this plain is dry, like the western part of 
Texas. 

The reason for this is that the winds from the Pacific 
Ocean lose their moisture as they pass eastward over the 
mountains, while those from the Gulf of Mexico and At- 
lantic rarely reach so far as this region. On that account 
the men of this section, as in western Texas, are princi- 
pally engaged in raising cattle (Fig. 156), sheep, and horses. 




Fig. 150. 

Harvesting wheat on one of the great wheat fields of the Red River Valley of 

North Dakota. 

The eastern part of the states from North Dakota to 
Texas has more rain ; and since the soil and climate are 
favorable, it is a great wheat region, the best in the entire 
country. 

In Kentucky, as in Virginia, tobacco is one of the most 
important products; but in the Central states perhaps 
the most valuable farm crop is corn. A great deal of 
that grain is raised in every one of these states, although 
Iowa and Illinois produce the largest amounts. In many 



182 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



localities so much is raised that the cornfields extend as 
far as the eye can reach. 

In all of these states there is much stock, each farmer usually 
keeping a few horses, cattle, sheep, or hogs. Each state, likewise, 
produces wheat and other kinds of grain, as well as wool, hay, fruit, 
vegetables, and other crops. Ohio is especially noted for its sheep 
and wheat. 




Fig. 151. 
An Iron Mine. 

Underneath the soil in several of the states, especially 
in Illinois, Ohio, and Indiana, coal is mined. Look on 
the map (p. 167) to see in what states coal occurs. In 
Ohio and Indiana, petroleum and natural gas are found. 

On the northwestern shore of Lake Superior, in Minne- 
sota, and also on the southern side, in Wisconsin and 



CENTRAL STATES 



183 



Michigan, iron ore is mined, as in Pennsylvania and Ala- 
bama. In fact, that region produces more iron ore than 
any other in the world. A great quantity of copper is 
also mined in Michigan. 

The northern parts of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michi- 
gan also have large forests, so that many kinds of lumber 
are secured from them. 

Now we know 
the principal 
raw products of 
the soil and 
mines of this 
region. We find 
cattle and sheep 
in the dry west- 
ern section, 
wheat in the 
northwest and 
in Ohio, copper 
and iron ore along the shores of Lake Superior, lumber in 
the north, tobacco in the south, corn in the center, and 
a vast amount of coal in several of the states. Many of 
the people of these states are engaged in obtaining these 
raw products. 

The Manufacturing and Trade Centers. — From this it is 
easy to see the reason for so many people and great cities 
in this region. The statement was made at the beginning 
of this section that four cities here were larger than New 
Orleans, and several Others about as large. Where should 
they be located? Heretofore we have found the great 
cities where goods can be shipped by water ; accordingly 
we would expect to find them either on the shores of 




70 am? 



Fig. 152. 
Make a list of the wheat-producing states. 



184 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



the Great Lakes or along the Mississippi River and its 
tributaries. 

Let us study about some of these cities, starting first 
with Chicago. It is next to New York in size, and is 
situated on the southwestern end of Lake Michigan in 
Illinois. It has water connections with New York City, 
as you know, and also with the cities along the St. Law- 
rence River ; for there is a canal leading from Lake Erie 
to Lake Ontario in order to avoid the Niagara Falls. 
What physical features tend to make Chicago a great 
railroad center ? 

Milwaukee, farther north on the lake shore, is much 
smaller than Chicago, but it is one of the two cities nearly 

as large as New 
Orleans. 

What, now, 
are likely to be 
the industries 
of these two 
cities and the 
others along the 
Great Lakes? 
Quantities of 
the raw prod- 
ucts named are 
sent to Chicago. 
It is the greatest 
meat market in 
the world ; and 
cattle and sheep 
from the West- 
ern plains, and hogs from all over the Central states, are 




Fig. 153. 
Market Street in the great city of Chicago. 



CENTBAL STATES 



185 



! |J 


'■ ■ '■■ II % i- "■ . ■■ .. . ".. It ..:■ .... ■ ' " II : 


:-■■■'-■: 


; ■:;:;:,:.:%■. 




S=5= 


S^LZCIIl-i-- -i 















Fig. 154. 
Cattle in the Chicago stock yards. 

shipped to the Chicago stock yards (Fig. 154), where 
thousands of men are employed in preparing them for 
food. The business of packing, canning, and shipping the 
meat requires a great number of workmen, and the tanning 
of the hides to make leather, which is done in Milwaukee, 
also keeps many men busy. 

Some of the wheat of the Dakotas and Minnesota is 
sent to Chicago and Milwaukee to be shipped or to be 
ground into flour for bread. The latter city has long been 
noted for its flour mills. In southeastern Minnesota are 
falls in the Mississippi River (Fig. 155) which furnish ex- 
cellent water power, so that flour mills have been built there 
and the city of Minneapolis has grown up about them. 

Only a few miles away, at the head of navigation on the Missis- 
sippi, is St. Paul, which owes its growth partly to the fact that it is 



186 



TUE EAIiTII AS A WHOLE 



a center for the sale of machinery, clothing, and other articles needed 
by the farmers who raise the wheat. Name some of the articles they 
need to buy. 

While much flour is made in the West, a great deal of the wheat 
is sent to Dultjth, on the western end of Lake Superior, and there 
shipped over the Great Lakes, whence it goes to New York and even 
to Europe. Why should Duluth be selected ? 

Chicago has no water power for manufacturing, but it 
is the nearest lake port to the Illinois coal fields, and draws 




Fig. 155. 

The power for running the large flour mills of Minneapolis is furnished by 
St. Anthony Falls, of the Mississippi River, The growth of Minneapolis is 
due largely to these natural advantages. 



upon them for fuel to produce steam for factories. Thus 
it is made a great center for the manufacture of iron goods 
and furniture, receiving both iron ore and lumber in lake 
vessels. But the other lake ports share in this work, espe- 
cially the great cities of Cleveland, Detroit, and To- 
ledo, which are within easy reach of the raw products. 

Another important product that reaches Chicago is corn. There 
it is ground into corn meal or made into hominy, starch, and other 
substances. So much corn and wheat are carried there that Chicago 
is a great grain as well as meat market. 



CENTRAL STATES 



187 



Locate the principal cities along the Great Lakes. Named in order 
of size they are Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Milwaukee, Toledo, and 
Duluth. In what state is each of these? Also find Saginaw and 
Grand Rapids, two important lumber-manufacturing cities. 

We said that the other great cities should be looked for 
upon the waterways formed by the Mississippi River and 
its largest tributaries. The greatest of these tributaries 
is the Missouri River, and a very large city, St. Louis, is 
situated near where it enters the Mississippi. 

St. Louis is connected with the country far to the north- 
west by the Missouri River; with Minneapolis by the 
Mississippi ; with Pittsburg by the Ohio ; and on the 
south with Memphis, New Orleans, and the ocean. Natu- 
rally, as people settled here, railways were built, until, 
like Chicago, it has become one of the great railway cen- 
ters in the country. Like Chicago, also, it draws to itself 
all the products that have been named. 

Although a great 
many cattle and 
sheep reach St. 
Louis and Chicago, 
making them im- 
portant meat 
markets, many of 
these animals are 
slaughtered near 
the plains on which 
they are raised, and 
that fact explains 
the importance of 
Omaha and Kan- 
sas City. Both these noted meat markets are on the Missouri River. 
Horses and wool are also shipped from these cities. 

Much wheat and corn are brought to St. Louis, making it an impor- 




Fig. 156. 



188 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

tant grain market. A great deal of tobacco also goes to St. Louis; but 
since Kentucky is the chief tobacco raising state in the Mississippi 
Valley, its leading city, Louisville, is the great tobacco market of 
that section, as Richmond is for Virginia. It is also an important 
manufacturing center. 

The manufacture of clothing is an important industry 
in Cincinnati on the Ohio River, and much machinery 
is made there from iron ore sent from Pennsylvania and 
West Virginia. Why from these states rather than from 
Lake Superior? 

One of the largest cities in these Central states, Indian- 
apolis, the capital and largest city in Indiana, is located 
away from the great waterways. But it is in a rich farm- 
ing country, and as railways enter it from all directions, 
it has become the chief trade center of that state. Colum- 
bus, the capital of Ohio, is another great trade center. 

Locate the principal cities on the large rivers and tell for 
what they are important. Ranked in order of size they 
are St. Louis, Cincinnati, Louisville, Minneapolis, Kansas 
City, and St. Paul. In which state is each of these? 

Review and Comparisons. — We have seen that the farm products 
and manufactures of the Central states are quite different from those 
of the Southern states. Make a list of these for each of the groups 
and compare them. Compare them in the same way with those of 
New England. With those of the Middle Atlantic states. Make a 
list of the six largest cities in each of these four groups of states. 

Review Questions. — (1) Describe the surface of the Central 
states. (2) What four states are dry in the western part? Why? 

(3) Compare the products of these with those of western Texas. 

(4) Where is our greatest wheat region? (5) Where in this group of 
states are copper and iron ore mined ? (6) Where is lumber found ? 
(7) Tobacco? (8) Corn? (9) Coal? (10) For what products is 
Ohio noted? (11) Give some reasons why Chicago has become so 
great a city. (12) Also St. Louis. Name and locate the chief cities 



CENTRAL STATES 



189 



along the Great Lakes, giving the main industries of each. (13) Do 
the same with the cities along the great rivers. (14) What was said 
about Indianapolis and Columbus ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Draw the Mississippi Kiver with its two main 
tributaries. Add to the drawing the Great Lakes and the Atlantic 
and Gulf coasts. Make a cross where each of the large cities is 
located, and write its name. (2) Do the lakes affect the climate 
of cities on or near their shore? Why? (3) Add some wheat 
and corn to the school collection. (4) Grow some of each in the 
school. (5) Tell from what animals wool, beef, pork, mutton, 
lard, and leather come. (6) Find out about the buffalo and 
Indians that used to live on the plains. (7) Read about the early- 
French explorers. About the pioneers who first settled these plains. 
(8) According to the scale of the map (Fig. 124) how does Kansas com- 
pare in size with Connecticut ? (9) With the whole of New England? 
(10) Draw a map of the Central states similar to that of New Eng- 
land, and put in the capitals. 

For References, see page 330. 




Marysville, California. 



XIII. WESTERN STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) In what directions do the mountains ex- 
tend ? (2) Name the principal ranges. (3) Which are the chief 
rivers? (4) Make a drawing of them. (5) In what sections do 
there seem to be few rivers ? (6) What does that suggest about rain- 
fall? (7) Some rivers empty into lakes that have no outlet. AVhat 
does that suggest? (See p. 59.) (8) How far is it across the United 
States from the northern to the southern boundary ? (9) Measure 
the length of California. Compare its size with Pennsylvania ; with 
Texas ; with Massachusetts. (10) Compare the coast line with that 
of New England. What does that suggest about harbors and cities? 
(11) Locate the capital and the chief city in each state. 

Reasons why there are so Few People. — This group of 
states is much larger than either of the other four, form- 
ing about one third of the entire United States. But 
they are thinly settled, having only about one fourth as 
many people as the Southern states alone. Two divisions, 
Arizona and New Mexico, are still territories. 

One reason why they have so few people is that most of 
the early settlers came from Europe, and naturally located 
in the Eastern and Southern states. It was only after 
these parts were fairly well occupied that many people 
moved farther westward. 

Another important reason is the mountainous condition 
of the country. Much of this section is a vast, dry pla- 
teau, usually more than a mile above the level of the sea. 
Extending across the plateau from north to south are 
several great mountain ranges. The mountains along the 
Pacific coast are called the Coast Ranges, those in eastern 
California the Sierra Nevada, and those farther north, in 

190 




WESTERN STATES 

Scale of Miles. 
q 50 100 

State Capitals'- © Other Cities 



115 c Longitude West 110° frc 



Fig. 157. 




Fig. 158. 
Mirror Lake, Yosemite Valley. Mt. Watkins in the distance. 



WESTERN STATES 



191 



Oregon and Washington, the Cascade Ranges. Far east 
of these long chains are others called the Rocky Mountains. 
All of these mountains together are known as the Western 
Cordilleras. 

The Cordilleras are far higher and steeper than the Appa- 
lachians in the East, and they are very rocky, so that farm- 




Fig. 159. 
A geyser in eruption in Yellowstone National Park. 

ing is impossible on much of the land. Indeed, in many 
parts they are so rough that it is difficult to travel among 
them ; this is indicated by the name Rocky Mountains. 

Still another reason why there are so few people is that, 
even where the soil is fertile, the climate is usually too dry 
for farming, because the winds that reach it do not carry 
much vapor. 



192 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




Fig. 160. 
Grand Canyon of the Colorado. 

Wonderful Scenery. — Some of the places in this section 
are among the most interesting in the world. For exam- 
ple, in northwestern Wyoming are hundreds of springs 
where the water is so hot that it boils. . At some points boil- 
ing water and steam occasionally shoot upward with a roar, 
from holes in the ground, and rise frequently to a height 
of one or two hundred feet. These are called geysers 
(Fig. 159), and there are scores of them in this region. 

Here, too, is the Yellowstone River, whose waters tum- 
ble 308 feet in a single fall, which is nearly twice as high as 
the Niagara Falls in New York. In the deep gorge that 
the river has cut below the falls, the rocky banks are in 
places fully one fourth of a mile high and beautifully col- 



WESTERN STATES 



193 



ored. Our nation has set aside this wonderful region as 
a park, naming it the Yellowstone National Park; and each 
year hundreds of people travel there to see it. 

Away in the heart of the Sierra Nevada mountains in 
central eastern California, is the Yosemite Valley (Fig. 
158), ground out by glaciers of long ago. 

Tourists the world 
over come here to see its 
lofty peaks and domes, 
its great cliffs and mighty 
waterfalls. Whether 
seen in winter with its 
tall pine trees mantled 
in snow, or in early sum- 
mer when the thunder 
of its waterfalls can be 
heard up and down the 
entire length of the val- 
ley, it is ever and always 
California's most famous 
natural wonderland. 

There are many other 
interesting places to visit 
in this western country ; 
but none are more won- 




Fig. 161. 

A miner washing, or "panning," gravel to 

see if there is any gold in it. 



derful than the Colorado Canyon (Fig. 160), cut in the 
rocks of the plateau, in places to a depth of over a mile. 
Trace its course on the map. 

Mining. — Although so rocky and so arid in places, there 
are important industries in the Western states ; and in 
order to find out what they are, let us first study the 
mountains. You remember that iron ore and coal are 



194 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

found in the Appalachians; do you remember in what 
states? Some coal and iron ore are also mined in the 
Cordilleras ; but even more valuable minerals than these 
are found in the mountain rocks. 

In 1848 gold was discovered in California. Bits of this 
heavy metal lay in some of the stream beds, and could be 
obtained by carefully washing the lighter dirt away (Fig. 
161). News of the discovery quickly spread throughout 
the world, and men hastened to the gold fields by thou- 
sands. Ever since then California has been one of the 
leading states in the production of gold. 

There were no railways then in the West, so that some 
of the people from the East crossed the plains and moun- 
tains in wagons, and were in danger of being attacked by 
savage Indians ; others made the long journey in vessels. 
What route must they have taken? The best harbor on 
the Pacific coast was San Francisco Bay, where a small 
Spanish town had existed for years. Soon people crowded 
in so rapidly that the town of San Feancisco became a 
great city and the chief trade center in the West. 

Gold was also found in veins in the solid rock. Rock 
with gold in it is called gold ore, and must be crushed into 
fine bits before the gold can be collected. This requires 
much machinery, and is one of the important parts of 
mining (Fig. 22, p. 26). 

Gold is also found in Colorado, and many men have 
been attracted to that state, as formerly to California. In- 
deed more gold now comes from Colorado than from 
California. Denver, the largest city in Colorado, and 
Poeblo, owe their growth partly to the gold mines near 
them. Find these cities on the map. 

Silver is another precious metal mined in the West, and 



WESTERN STATES 



195 



Colorado produces more of it than any other state. With- 
out doubt some of the gold and silver that you have seen 
came from the mountain rocks of California or Colorado. 
For what purposes are these metals used ? 

Large quantities of both metals are also mined in the other 
states and territories of this section, epecially in the Black 
Hills of South Dakota, in Montana, Nevada, and Utah. 




Fig. 162.. 

Placer mining in Montana. — Two alluvial fans being built of gravel dropped 
at the end of sluices in the process of washing gold from the gravels. Notice 
the numerous branches of the stream on the farther fan. These are so 
rapidly depositing and building up the fan that they must frequently change 
positions. 

Much copper is mined in the West, especially-at Butte, 
Montana, where the greatest copper mines in the world are 
situated, and in the territory of Arizona. Lead is a fourth 
important metal obtained from these Western states. 

Cities have grown up near some of these mines ; but 
there are many mines in the mountains far away from the 
cities. In some parts of the country travelers may see, 



196 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



from the car windows, scores of little tunnels dug into the 
sides of the mountains, by men who were hunting for ore. 
It is a hard, lonely life, and many find little ore ; but one 
occasionally makes a discovery that brings him a fortune. 
Ranching. — The mountains, therefore, are chiefly valu- 
able for their ores ; but the high plains and plateaus also 

have some worth. 
There is little rain 
upon them ; but, as 
in the western part 
of the two Dakotas, 
Nebraska, Kansas, 
and Texas, there is 
often grass enough 
for raising cattle, 
sheep, and horses. 
Many of the animals 
raised are finally 
shipped eastward 
to furnish meat, 
leather, and wool. 
In these states the 
cowboys live, spend- 
ing most of their 
days upon their 
horses (Fig. 163). 
The Desert. — In some parts of this dry, or arid, region 
there is so little rain that they are true deserts. One can 
travel for scores of miles and see scarcely any vegetation 
excepting cactus, a little grass, and such plants as grow in 
arid regions. There are no trees ; there is no water ; in 
fact, there is little but sand and rock to be seen ! No 




Fig. 163. 
A western cowboy. 



WESTERN STATES 



197 



wonder that many a family, with their horses or oxen, 
died of thirst and hunger in attempting to cross this desert 
waste in search of California gold sixty years ago. 

Irrigation. — However, by irrigation parts of these deserts 
are changed into gardens. To irrigate the thirsty soil, 
which is usually fertile, men dig ditches and lead the 




Fig. 164. 
Mormon Temple, Salt Lake City, Utah. 

water from streams that are fed by the rain and melting 
snow of the high mountains (Figs. 165-166). 

The Mormons of Utah, a people who were driven out 
of the Eastern states many years ago, and who settled in 
that barren region, have changed the desert to a garden by 
means of irrigation. They have also built the beautiful 
Salt Lake City (Fig. 164) near Salt Lake ; and not far 
away from this is Ogden, a busy railway center, where there 
are not so many Mormons. Find these places on the map. 



198 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Near Denver is a great irrigation ditch leading from the 
mountains ; and while the land just above the level of the 
ditch is fit for nothing but grazing, that below it, which 
can be flooded with the water, produces excellent crops. 

Irrigation is growing more common every year, and 
by the aid of it people often raise food for stock, as well 
as for themselves. They even build great reservoirs to 
collect the water for use in the summer (Fig. 49, p. 57). 

Fruit Raising. — We have been studying the moun- 
tains, high plains, and plateaus, finding mining and graz- 
ing to be the chief industries, with farming where the soil 
is irrigated. 

Let us now examine the land nearer the coast. South- 
ern California also has an arid climate, where much of the 
farming is carried on by means of irrigation. But since 
the climate of the region is warm, as in Florida, the fruits 
that grow in southern countries, such as oranges, lemons, 
peaches, olives, and figs, are easily raised. 

In the midst of this beautiful fruit country, where the 
climate is so fine, is the beautiful city of Los Angeles, an 
important railway center, surrounded by thriving towns 
and orange groves. 

Everywhere in that vicinity the main work is fruit 
raising by aid of irrigation (Figs. 165-166). Without it 
a piece of land produces only scanty crops, while a well- 
irrigated orchard by its side thrives wonderfully well. 
Visitors are usually surprised to see such a striking 
difference. 

Industries along the Pacific, Coast. — Farther north, 
toward San Francisco and beyond it, the rainfall is 
heavier ; but irrigation is necessary in man}' - places. The 
most common fruits are grapes, prunes, peaches, and apri- 



WESTERN STATES 



199 




Fig. 165. 
A dam and ditch, built for irrigation purposes. Tell what you can of all you see 

in this picture. 




Fig. 166. 

The plan of irrigating a fruit orchard. Notice the main ditch and how the water 

is let into the furrows made between the rows of trees. 



200 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

cots. Much wheat is also raised, and sheep are numerous. 
This is the country of "big trees," too (p. xvi), the largest 
in the world being found in the vast forests among the 
mountains. 

Still farther north, between Oregon and Washington, 
you will find a large river on the map. What is its name ? 
Here the moist winds from the ocean cause heavy rainfall, 
so that irrigation near the coast is unnecessary. On the 
mountain slopes are extensive forests, and there are large 
lumber mills, especially in Washington along Puget Sound. 
Find this sound (Fig. 124). 

The raising of such fruits as peaches and apples is an 
important industry. Salmon are abundant in the Colum- 
bia River, so that the fishing industry is important there, 
as at Gloucester, Massachusetts. What kinds are caught 
there? (See p. 155.) 

The Cities of the Pacific Slope. — The largest city north 
of San Francisco is Portland, on a small branch of the 
Columbia River. The other cities are Tacoma and 
Seattle on Puget Sound, and Spokane, a manufac- 
turing center, at the falls in the Spokane River. 

Comparing the Pacific with the Atlantic coast, one sees 
some striking differences. The Atlantic coast is low and 
extremely irregular, having many bays and fine harbors, 
with numerous great cities about them. But the Pacific 
coast has steep mountains in many places, and, except in 
the very north, is regular, having few fine harbors and large 
cities. San Francisco, Oakland, Berkeley, and Alameda 
are the most important cities situated on San Francisco 
Bay, one of the best harbors in the world. 

San Jose in the Santa Clara Valley, and Sacramento, 
Stockton, Fresno, and Bakersfield in the Sacramento-San 



WESTERN STATES 201 

Joaquin Valley, are important cities. Los Angeles, San 
Diego, Pasadena, and Santa Barbara are the largest cities 
in the southern part of the state. 

From the coast and bay cities, and from the interior, 
California products are shipped over the Pacific Ocean to 
Japan, China, Australia, and even around South America 
to the Atlantic coast. This is an important trade, but it 
is not so extensive as the ocean commerce of the Atlantic 
coast cities. The fact that we now control the Philippine 
and Hawaiian islands will cause this trade to increase ; 
and when the Panama canal connecting the Atlantic and 
Pacific oceans is finished, there will be still more ocean 
commerce. Why ? A cable has recently been laid from 
San Francisco to Manila by way of Honolulu. Of what 
benefit is it ? 

At present the greater part of the products of the 
Western states, even of the coast cities, instead of being 
shipped by water, are sent eastward by rail. There are 
railway lines connecting each of the large Western cities 
with all portions of the Eastern states. 

Review Questions. — (1) Compare the size of this group of states 
with that of the other groups. (2) What about the number of people 
there? (3) Give three reasons why there are so few. (4) Name each 
of the mountain ranges, rinding each on the map, Fig. 124. (5) Tell 
what a visitor may see in the Yellowstone Park ; in Yosemite Valley. 
Locate each. (6) Where is San Francisco? What caused its early 
rapid growth ? (7) Where is Denver ? Give a reason for its impor- 
tance. (8) What metals are obtained in the West? (9) Where is 
each found? (10) Tell what you can about each. (11) What is the 
principal industry on the high plains and plateaus ? Why ? (12) Why 
cannot the whole desert be irrigated? (13) What city have the Mor- 
mons built? Where is it? (14) Where is Los Angeles ? (15) What 
is raised near there? Why? (16) What is raised in other parts of 
California? (17) Name the products of Oregon and Washington. 



202 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

(18) Where is the chief city in Oregon? Why there? (19) What are 
the chief cities in Washington? (20) Name the cities on the Pacific 
coast having excellent harbors. Name several on the Atlantic. 
(21) How do the two coasts differ? (22) Where are the products of 
the Pacific coast sent ? How ? 

(23) Make a list of the principal cities in California. (24) In 
what direction is each from San Francisco ? (25) Make a map of the 
United States, placing on it each of the states with their names. Put 
on the map the names of the capitals. (26) Which states have a 
seacoast? 

Suggestions. — (1) Write a story describing a journey across the 
plains and mountains to California in the early days. (2) Make a 
list of articles made of gold; of silver; of copper; of lead. Collect 
some ores of these for the school. (3) What stories have you read 
about the life of cowboys? About the Western Indians? (4) Find 
out something about the Yosemite Valley. (5) Find out what prod- 
ucts of your county are shipped to other states or countries. (6) Visit 
a fish market to see some salmon. Find a picture of one in the 
dictionary. (7) Add together the population of the five largest cities 
on the Pacific coast. Compare that number with the population of 
the five largest on the Atlantic coast. You will find a table giving 
population of cities on page 336. (8) Make a drawing of the Pacific 
coast, showing the cities. Add the rivers. (9) Find out what large 
animals live among the mountains. (10) What is the distance from 
San Francisco to New York? (11) Past what cities must the waters 
of the Yellowstone River run, in flowing to the Gulf of Mexico? 
Through what states? (12) Ask the railroad agent in your town for 
illustrated circulars descriptive of western scenery, or write to San 
Francisco to the general offices of the different roads. 

For References, see page 330. 



XIV. ALASKA 

Alaska, which you see on the map (Fig. 123, opposite 
p. 152), although a part of the United States, is a great 
distance from us. Our country purchased this cold north- 
ern land from Russia. It is so far north that it is partly 
in the arctic zone, and many people thought that our 
government wasted the 17,200,000 that was paid for it. 




Fig. 167. 
On the way to Klondike gold mines, Alaska. 

But Alaska has proved valuable in several ways. Dur- 
ing the last few years thousands of men have gone there in 
search of gold, just as years ago thousands rushed to Cali- 
fornia. You have probably heard of the famous Klondike 
region (Fig. 167), where so much gold has been found. 
The Klondike is a stream flowing into the Yukon River 

203 



204 



THE EAIiTH AS A WHOLE 



just east of the boundary line between Alaska and Canada. 
Find it. The Klondike region itself is in Canada. 




Fig. 168. 

Face of Muir Glacier, Alaska. Notice the icebergs broken off the glacier and 
lying in the foreground. 

A few hundred miles southwest of the mouth of the Yukon River 
are the small Pribilof Islands, to which thousands of seals come every 
spring to rear their young. Seal hunters are allowed by the govern- 
ment to capture some of these for their fur, which is warm and beau- 
tiful, but very expensive because the animals are not abundant. 

There are great forests in some parts of Alaska. The fishing in- 
dustry is also important. Not only is Alaska valuable at present, but 
it will probably be even more valuable in the future. 

Review Questions. — (1) Where is Alaska? (2) In what zones? 
(3) flow did we obtain it? (4) What is done there? 

Suggestions. — (1) Draw the Yukon River. (2) Measure its 
length and compare it witli that of the Mississippi. (3) How does 
the coast compare with that of California? Of Maine? (4) Read 
something about the fur seal. Examine some fur. (5) Find out 
something about a journey to the Klondike. 

For References, see page 331. 



XV. CANADA AND OTHER COUNTRIES NORTH 
OF THE UNITED STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) How far are Detroit, Buffalo, and Chicago 
from Canada? (Figs. 132-148.) (2) What falls in the river which 
connects Lakes Ontario and Erie ? (3) What effect have they upon 
shipping? (4) In what part of Canada would you expect to find most 
of the people? Why? (5) What large bay in northeastern Canada? 
(See map opposite p. 152.) (6) What can you say about the climate 
of the country north of this? (7) Which of the Great Lakes is 
entirely within the United States? (8) Into what large river do the 
Great Lakes empty ? 

Canada and Newfoundland 

Industries. — Canada is a British colony ; and New- 
foundland and Labrador also belong to England, but are 
separate from Canada. 

In the north this region is cold and bleak ; but the 
southern part resembles the northern United States in cli- 
mate and soil, so that the products on the two sides of the 
boundary may be expected to correspond. 

Fishing was found to be an important industry along 
the New England coast (p. 155) ; so it is, also, in Nova 
Scotia and Newfoundland. 

Maine in the East and Washington in the West are cov- 
ered with vast forests. Forests extend into Canada, cover- 
ing a large part of it, and in fact they reach northward 
for several hundred miles, until the climate becomes so 
cold that trees can no longer grow. 

205 



206 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



New York and Ohio are noted for their fruit, dairying, 
and farming. Ontario, or that part of Canada just north 
of these states, has the same products. 

The best wheat fields in the United States are in Min- 
nesota and the two Dakotas ; so Manitoba is the best 
wheat region in Canada. And since the dry plains of 
the Far West also extend into Canada, cattle and sheep 
raising are important industries on the plains of western 
Canada, even to the base of the Rocky Mountains. 

The western mountains of the United States contain 
much gold, silver, and other metals ; it is the same with 
the mountains of Canada. The Klondike region should 
be remembered as a part of Canada, although it was men- 
tioned in connection with Alaska. (See p. 203.) 

Since we know the principal products, let us locate the 
chief lines of transportation and cities. Canada, like the 

United States, 
has a water 
route to the 
ocean. This is 
partly along the 
Great Lakes 
and partly along 
the St. Law- 
rence River, one 
of the great riv- 
ers of the con- 
tinent ; but in 
some places, as at Niagara, it is necessary to pass for short 
distances through canals. One of the largest of these is 
the Welland Canal, which connects Lakes Erie and On- 
tario. Point it out on Fig. 132. 



Hpw 




W :J % 


-:.-■;-■■ -■■ ' ■■''■"::■:-'■ '':':-:- 


"■* _ ; \ i 




- — «S^ML^_* _*. 


--***■■■■*.•— _•»<' •+- ' - 



Fig. 169. 
The Lachine Rapids, on the St. Lawrence, just above 
Montreal. There is one place down which a steamer 
can come ; but no vessel can go up the rapids. Do 
you see how this has helped to determine the loca- 
tion of Montreal? 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF UNITED STATES 



207 



Cities. — The eastern part of Canada is most thickly 
settled, like the eastern part of the United States, and for 
the same reasons. What are they ? Along the water 
route just mentioned are some very large cities, as in the 
United States. The largest is Montreal, which is nearly 
as large as New Orleans. Like that city, Montreal is sit- 




Fig. 170. 

Waterfall at Ottawa. The city is seen beyond the fall. How has the fall 
helped to determine the location of Ottawa ? 

uated on a river at a point where ocean vessels can reach 
it. Farther down the St. Lawrence is the old city of 
Quebec, founded many years ago by the French. Ot- 
tawa, the capital, is west of Quebec, on Ottawa River, 
and Toronto is across Lake Ontario from Niagara Falls. 
Find all these (Fig. 123). 



208 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



As there is much water power and coal in eastern Can- 
ada, there is a great deal of manufacturing in the cities, 
especially in Montreal and Toronto. 

The cities not on this water route are smaller. Halifax, in Nova 
Scotia, has an excellent harbor. Winnipeg, the main city in the 
wheat region of Manitoba, is connected with the Pacific coast at Van- 
couver and the Atlantic at St. John by the great Canadian Pacific 
Railway. From Vancouver and Victoria, as from Seattle, Tacoma, 
Portland, and San Francisco, goods are shipped to Australia and Asia. 




Fig. 171. 
A whaling vessel ice-bound in the Far North. 

The Far North. — In the vast forests of northern Canada live few 
other people than hunters, trappers, and Indians. 

Along the northern coast are found scattered groups of Eskimos, 
who get their living almost entirely from the sea. Their food is 
obtained from the seal, walrus, polar bear, and reindeer ; their clothes, 
summer tents, and boats are made from the skins of these animals; 
and their oil for light and heat during the long winter night also 
comes from them. Their winter houses are snow huts, and long 
journeys over the ice-covered seas are made on sledges drawn by 
wolf-like dogs. 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF UNITED STATES 



209 



Islands North of North America 

The islands north of North America are desolate lands. In winter 
the sea is frozen ; and even in summer floating ice is usually in sight. 
Some of the ice is that which has frozen on the surface of the sea 
during the winter ; but rising above this are many great blocks of ice, 
or icebergs, sometimes two hundred or three hundred feet in height. 
They have broken off from the streams of ice, called glaciers, that 




Fig. 172. 
An iceberg from the great glaciers of the Arctic region. 



move down from the land and enter the sea. The immense island of 
Greenland is almost a ? l covered by such glaciers. No land can be 
seen excepting near the coast,, where some Eskimos live and a few 
Europeans, called Danes, from Denmark. The island belongs to the 
Danes, who purchase skins, oil, etc., from the Eskimos. 

Review Questions. — (1) Show how the products of Canada cor- 
respond with those of northern United States. (2) Where is the 
St. Lawretice River? Walk in the direction in which it flows. 
(3) Where does the water come from? (4) Through what waters 
must a vessel pass in going from Duluth to the Gulf of St. Lawrence 



210 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



and the ocean ? (5) Name and locate the chief cities along this route. 
(6) Where is the largest city? Why there? (7) Where is Ottawa? 
Halifax? (8) Name two cities on the western coast. (9) Tell about 
the people living in northern Canada. (10) How are icebergs caused? 
(11) Make a drawing of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River, put- 
ting iu the cities. 




Fig. 173. 

Cutting ice from the St. Lawrence River opposite Montreal. What effect 
should you think this thick ice would have on the commerce of Montreal ? 



Suggestions. — (1) What difficulty do you see in building the 
Welland Canal ? How is it overcome ? (2) What difficulties should 
you think the Canadian Pacific Railway would have in running- 
trains in winter ? (3) Why is not Hudson Bay an important outlet 
for goods by water from Canada? (4) How can you explain the 
fact that there are no large cities along the great Mackenzie River? 
(5) Find out something about Quebec. (6) Write a story about 
the Eskimos. (7) Collect pictures of scenes in Canada. (8) Read 
Longfellow's poem, " Evangeline " ; the land of Evangeline is in Nova 
Scotia. 

For References, see page 331. 



XVI. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED 

STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) What does the map (Fig. 123, opposite 
p. 152) tell you about the highlands and lowlands in Mexico ? (Notice 
the rivers.) (2) Find the capital of Mexico. (3) Why is Central 
America a fitting name for the region southeast of Mexico ? (4) Point 
toward Cuba. (5) How far is Havana from Florida? From New 
Orleans? (6) What large islands in the West Indies? In what zone 
are they? (7) What large peninsulas are in Mexico? 

Mexico and Central America. — As Canada is colder than 
the United States, so the countries south of us may be ex- 
pected to be warmer. 




Fig. 174. 

Popocatepetl, an extinct volcano, not far from Mexico City, and one of the 
highest mountain peaks on the continent. Notice that the top is white 
with snow, although in the torrid zone. 

211 



212 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Near the seacoast of Mexico the land is low and the cli- 
mate hot ; but in the interior are many mountains and 
broad, arid plateaus. They are a continuation of those in 
our Western states, and are so high that the climate is 
cool. 

Some of the highest mountain peaks are old volcanoes made of lava 
that has poured forth from the earth. These peaks are so high that 
they are always covered with snow, in spite of the fact that they are 
in the torrid zone. 

With such a variety of climate we shall of course find a 
variety of products. Much of the mountain region is too 

cold and rocky 
for farming; 
but, as in Col- 
orado, these 
mountains yield 
valuable metals, 
especially sil- 
ver. 

Part of the 
Mexican plateau 
is dry, like west- 
ern Texas and 
some of the other 
Western states. 
Name some of them. Like these, its value consists largely 
in wild grass, on which great herds of cattle, sheep, and 
horses feed. Of what use are these animals ? In other 
parts of the plateau there is enough rainfall for farming ; 
but in most places crops can be raised by the aid of irri- 
gation only. 

Along the lowlands of the coast, the rainfall is heavy, 




Fig. 175. 
A street in a Mexican town. 



COUNTEIES SOUTH OF UNITED STATES 213 

and the products are much the same as on the low, damp 
plains of our own Southern states. What are they ? (See 
pp. 172 and 174.) Besides these, much coffee is grown on 
the slopes between the coastal plain and the high plateau. 
Have we found that product before in North America ? 

There is very little manufacturing in these countries, for two rea- 
sons. One is that coal is lacking. Why is that a good reason? The 
other is that many of the people are too ignorant to manage machinery. 

The Spaniards once owned this part of North America, and their 
language is still spoken there. Most of the people living in Mexico 
and Central America are either pure Indians, or else Spaniards with 
Indian blood in their veins, called half-breeds. Only about one man 
in six is a full-blooded Spaniard. 

Mexico is now a republic, like the United States, 
and its capital is the city of Mexico. The coast on 
the east is regular, as you can see, so that there are 
few harbors. Vera Cruz is the chief port, but the 
harbor is pooi> 

Central America is made up of several republics, each 
having a capital of its own. Many of the people are very 
ignorant, and there are frequent revolutions, when ambi- 
tious generals try to overthrow the government. 

At the present time Central America and the Isthmus of Panama 
are of interest because a canal is being dug there, to save vessels the 
long journey around South America. Examine the map (Fig. 120, 
opposite p. 149) to see how much distance will be saved in this way 
between New York and San Francisco. In Central America are 
dense tropical forests from which hard woods, dyes, rubber, and other 
valuable products are obtained. 

The West Indies and Bermuda. — Besides the countries on 
the mainland of the continent there are numerous islands, 
some of which form an archipelago called the West Indies. 
They are really the highest parts of mountain ranges pro- 



214 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 



jecting above the sea and so arranged as to separate the 
Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico and from the At- 
lantic Ocean. All of them have a tropical climate. 




Fig. 176. 

A field of Easter lilies in the Bermuda Islands, where these lilies are raised for 
export to the United Slates at Easter. 

The largest island is Cuba, where sugar, tobacco, and 
tropical fruits, such as bananas, are raised. Havana, is 
its capital and largest seaport. Cuba belonged to Spain 
until our recent war with Spain, and so did Porto Rico, 
which now belongs to the United States. 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF UNITED STATES 215 

The other large islands are Jamaica, belonging to England, and 
Haiti, where there are two. negro republics. The large islands are 
called the Greater Antilles; and the small islands, extending in a 
chain from near Porto Rico to the South American coast, are called 
the Lesser Antilles. These belong to England, France, and other 
European nations. 

Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the climate and relief of 
Mexico. (2) About the industries. (3) About the inhabitants. 
(4) What cities are there? (5) For what is Central America espe- 
cially important at present ? (6) Tell what you can about the West 
Indies. 

Suggestions. — (1) What country is digging the Panama Canal? 
(2) Find out what you can about the Panama Canal. (3) Why are 
there no large rivers in Mexico ? (4) Tell some of the events that 
happened in Cuba during our war against Spain. (5) Find out what 
you can about Cuba; about Porto Rico. 
For References, see page 331. 




U. S. Government Experimental Station, Chico, California. 



XVII. SOUTH AMERICA 

Map Questions. — (1) Compare the shape of South America 
with that of North America. (2) What great mountain ranges are 
there along the western side ? (3) Which part of South America has 
no cold winter? (4) What is the name of the longest river? 

Relief. — In South America there are high mountains 
on the western side, called the Andes. Many of the peaks 
are higher than those in the United States, and there are 
many active volcanoes among them (Fig. 12). 

Besides the Andes, the map shows a highland region in eastern 
Brazil and a smaller one between the Amazon and Orinoco rivers, 
forming the divide between them. 

The remainder of South America is mainly lowland, drained by 
three mighty rivers. What are their names? Where does each rise? 
In what direction does each flow ? AVhich drains the longest slope ? 

Climate. — The products of the three valleys greatly 
depend upon their climate ; let us, therefore, see how 
much heat and moisture they have. 

Where does the equator cross the continent ? Where 
does the tropic of Capricorn cross it ? How much of 
the continent, then, is in the torrid zone ? Where is the 
coldest part ? In which zone ? 

From this we see that much more than half the conti- 
nent must have a warm climate ; but that the southern 
part has a temperate climate more like our own. In 
which months does summer come to this region ? 

As for the moisture in the torrid or tropical part of 
South America the rains are very heavy. The reason 

216 




Fig. 177. 




Thoroughbred stock raised in Tehama County, California. 




Sheep feeding in a valley pasture. Tehama County, California. 

Cattle and sheep raising are important industries in South America as well 
as in North America. 



SOUTH AMERICA 



217 



for this is that the air becomes heated and is thus made 
very light ; it is then forced to rise to such a height that 
the vapor is condensed, causing heavy showers. (See 
p. 83.) 

There is less rainfall in the south temperate zone, and 
still less in the narrow strip west of the central part of 




Fig. 178. 
Two tunnels on a railway line that crosses the high Andes of Peru. 

the Andes,in Chile and Peru. There the climate is quite 
arid because the principal winds are from the south and 
east, so that the air loses its vapor in passing over the 
mountains and descends upon the Pacific slope as dry, 
parching winds. 



218 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 

History. — Knowing now the chief facts about the re- 
lief and climate, let us look at the countries themselves. 
After the discovery of South America by Columbus the 
Spaniards settled in many parts, obtaining great quanti- 
ties of gold and silver, especially in the Andes. Nearly 
all of South America once belonged to Spain, excepting 
Brazil, which was settled and for a long time owned by 
the Portuguese. Although the South American coun- 
tries are now independent nations, the Spanish language 
is still spoken nearly everywhere excepting in Brazil. 

Brazil. — This is the largest country, being even larger 
than the United States without Alaska ; but it has only 
about one fourth as many inhabitants. Much of the 
great Amazon valley consists of forest-covered plains, 
called silvas, in which the trees are so close together, and 
there is such a mat of vines and underbrush, that it is 
extremely difficult for one to make his way through. 
From what was just said about the climate, you may be 
able to give the reason for such rank growth. 

You will find pictures of some of the wild forest ani- 
mals in Fig. 109, page 141. What are their names ? 

Of course this forest is not a good home for men, espe- 
cially since much of the land is frequently flooded ; in 
fact, Indians are almost the only people living there. 
They make a living by hunting, fishing, and selling rub- 
ber from the rubber tree that grows in the woods. 

Rubber is obtained by cutting a hole in the bark, and 
catching the milky fluid that flows forth. After being 
warmed over a fire to make it more solid, it is sent down 
the river in boats to Para and then shipped to many parts 
of the world. Bicycle tires and overshoes are made from it. 
See how long a list of other rubber articles you can name. 



SOUTH AMERICA 219 

Another common tree is the cocoa tree, on which grow 
the beans from which cocoa and chocolate are made. It 
is difficult to travel in this great wilderness, where the 
rivers are almost the only roadways. 




Fig. 179. 
A view in a tropical forest. 

Most of the inhabitants of Brazil live in the eastern part 
along the coast. Some of them are white people, but many 
are either Indians or negroes, or of mixed blood, as in 
Mexico. You will notice several cities on the coast, of 
which Rio de Janeiro, the capital, is the largest, having 
over half a million people. It has a splendid harbor. 



220 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



There must certainly be some important industries in 
this region to cause a city to become so large. Besides 
the raising of cattle upon the plateau of eastern Brazil, 
farming is an important industry there. The principal 
crops are the same as those already found in warm coun- 
tries ; namely, cotton, sugar, tobacco, and coffee. The 




Fig. 180. 

Native Indian women washing clothes in Venezuela. Do you see in the picture 
any reason for thinking it is warm there ? 

last is most important, and Rio de Janeiro is one of the 
chief export towns, which is the reason why some of our 
coffee is called Rio coffee. 

Venezuela and Guiana. — North of Brazil is Venezuela, 
which includes most of the Orinoco valley. Here are 
broad plains, called llanos, which produce excellent grass, 
so that cattle raising is one of the important industries. 



SOUTH AMERICA 221 

Coffee and cocoa are also raised. The capital and largest 
city is Caracas, which is located several miles from the 
coast upon land more than half a mile above the sea. 

Just north of the mouth of the Orinoco River is Trini- 
dad Island, on which is a great pitch lake, supplying much 
of the asphalt used in our street pavements. 

All of the countries of South America are republics ex- 
cepting Guiana, which belongs to three European nations. 
What are their names? 




Fig. 181. 
A scene on the pampas of Argentina. 

La Plata Countries. — The country south of Brazil, 
drained by the Plata River and its tributaries, is one of 
the most productive parts of South America. Here, at 
the mouth of the Plata River in Argentina, is Buenos 
Aires, the largest city on the continent. Across the 
wide river mouth is Montevideo, another large city, 
in Uruguay. What other small country lies between 
Argentina and Brazil ? 

The plains in this section of the country are called 
pampas; and because of their excellent grass one of the 



222 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 

chief industries is ranching. Since most of the country 
is in the temperate zone, corn and wheat are important 
farm products ; and in the warm northern part, near the 
tropics, tobacco and sugar cane are raised. This is the 
part of South America that most nearly corresponds in 
climate and products to the United States. 

Goods are still carried upon the rivers in Argentina, 
but there are also many railways in^that country, — more, 
in fact, than in any other part of South America. 

Andean Countries. — The countries in the western part 
of South America are very mountainous, since each of 
them includes a part of the Andean chain. As you might 
expect, then, one of the principal industries is mining ; 
and immense quantities of gold and silver have been 
found there. What are the names of these countries ? 

Observe that most of the cities are not upon the coast. 
This is partly because they have grown up in the mining 
districts among the mountains, and partly because there 
are so few good harbors. Many of the cities away from 
the coast have seaports, as Callao in Peru, the seaport 
of Lima. Find others. 

Valparaiso, in Chile, is the largest port on the Pacific 
coast ; but Santiago, the capital, situated fifty miles 
inland, and about one half mile above the sea, is more 
than twice as large. Notice how long and narrow Chile 
is ; what reason can you give for that ? 

Farming is possible in the northern part of the western 
coast, where the rainfall is heavy ; but farther south, as 
in Peru and northern Chile, agriculture is impossible with- 
out irrigation. In southern Chile, however, the rainfall 
is moderate, and many people have settled there because 
the farming and grazing are excellent. 



SOUTH AMERICA 



223 



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Fig. 182. 
A scene among the lofty mountains of Chile. 

Which of the Andean countries has no seacoast ? Is 
that a disadvantage ? Ecuador is the Spanish word for 
equator. Why is that a fitting name for the country? 
Colombia and Panama have seacoasts on two oceans, and 
the latter includes the Isthmus of Panama. What cities 
do you find on the two sides of the Isthmus ? They are 
connected by a railway. Why is this important ? 

Review Questions. — (1) Describe the highland regions of South 
America. (2) What three great valleys are there? (3) In what zones 
are the different parts of the continent ? (4) Which is the rainiest 
region? Why? (5) What about the rainfall elsewhere ? (6) Com- 
pare Brazil with the United States in size and number of inhabitants. 
(7) Tell about the silvas and the valuable products obtained from 
them. (8) Where are the chief cities in Brazil? Which is the 
largest? (9) Name the main industries in that section. (10) Where 
is Venezuela? (11) Tell about the industries there. (12) Where is 
Caracas? (13) For what is Trinidad noted? (14) Which is the 



224 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



most productive- part of South America ? What are the products ? 
(15) Name and locate the largest city on the continent. (16) Name 
the countries along the western side of South America. (17) "Why 
are most of the cities not directly on the coast? (18) "Which is the 
largest port ? (19) What are the five products of these countries ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Draw the outline of South America. Put in 
the drawing the mountains, chief rivers, and cities. (2) What large 
cities were found in the interior of North America? How about 
South America in that respect ? What are the causes for the differ- 
ence ? (3) Brazil is in the torrid zone, while the United States is in 
the temperate zone. Which country has the advantage in temper- 
ature? Why? (4) Write a story telling of a journey by laud and 
river from the mouth of the Orinoco to the mouth of the Plata. 
(5) Read something about coffee raising. (6) From the table on 
page 339 find the five largest cities in South America. Add the 
populations together and compare the result with the total of the five 
largest cities in North America (see p. 335). 

For References* see page 331. 









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Raising mules for market. Tehama County, California. 




Digging peat in Ireland. 



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Shetland ponies, so protected by a heavy coat of hair that they thrive in the raw 
climate of the Shetland Islands. 




Fig. 183. 



XVIII. EUROPE 

Map Questions. — (1) On page 142 it was stated that Eurasia 
consisted of two continents, Europe and Asia. Trace the boundary 
line between them, naming the mountains and waters that form it. 
(2) One of the seas has no outlet; which is it? What kind of 
water would you expect to find in that sea? (3) How does the coast 
line of Europe compare with that of South America? Of North 
America? (4) Would you expect to find many good harbors? 
(5) Name the largest peninsulas and draw an outline map to show 
them. (6) Where are the highest mountains? (7) One of the 
Alpine peaks is Mt. Blanc. (8) Where are the plains? Which 
very large country is made up mainly of plains? Find Sicily and 
Sardinia. (9) In what zones is Europe? (10) How do you think its 
climate would compare with that of the United States? (11) With 
what European country have we recently been at war? (12) What 
other countries in Europe do you know something about? (13) By 
what route would you go from New York to one of them? (See 
Fig. 120.) 

Europe is only a little larger than the United States 
with Alaska, but contains more than five times as many 
inhabitants, who are separated into a score of nations, 
with a different language for nearly every one. 

I. The British Isles. — The people in Europe to whom 
we are most closely related live on the small group of 
islands, called the British Isles, which lie just west of 
the mainland. This is often called our "mother coun- 
try." Can you tell why ? 

There are two islands, Ireland and Great Britain ; what 
are the names of the three parts of Great Britain ? 

225 



226 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



On these islands are fine harbors and many great cities, 
London, in the southern part of England, on the Thames 
River, being the largest city in the world. Let us see 
what the people do. 

Judging from their position one might expect these islands to be 
too cold for agriculture, for they are farther north than the mouth of 
the St. Lawrence River ; but the climate is no colder than that of the 
northern United States. The reason for this is that the western coast 











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Fig. 184. 

London bridge, across the Thames, over which a busy throng is almost con- 
stantly passing. 

of Europe is warmed by a broad current, or drift, of warm ocean water, 
known as the Gulf Stream, which flows northeast in the Atlantic 
Ocean from the warm southern seas. The air over it becomes warmed ; 
and, since the winds of Europe blow chiefly from the west, they carry 
this warmth with them and produce a climate much milder than one 
would otherwise expect. 

Wales and most of Scotland are too hilly to be well 
suited to agriculture ; but many sheep and cattle are 



EUROPE 227 

raised. In England there is much more farming, and hay 
is one of the chief crops, since the damp air and the rain 
cause the grass to grow well. This is a reason, also, why 
sheep are raised in great numbers. 

But agriculture and stock raising are not the chief 
occupations. Having much wool, the people long ago 
learned to make woolen cloth. In addition to that, they 
purchased cotton from distant countries, — as New Eng- 
land does to-day from the Southern states, — and made 
cotton goods. Thus extensive manufacturing industries 
have been developed, which have been made possible 
because of the vast beds of coal found there, as in Penn- 
sylvania, Illinois, and neighboring states. 

The center for this manufacturing is Manchester, and 
the nearest port is Liverpool, thirty-five miles away. 
Recently a ship canal, called the Manchester Canal, has 
been built, connecting these two cities. Find them. 

The coal has helped to make another great industry 
possible. Beds of iron ore occur in England, and by the 
use of coal it is made into iron and steel, especially at Bir- 
mingham, which is the greatest center for iron manufac- 
turing in Great Britain. Where else have we found a city 
called Birmingham ? What can you tell about it ? 

The lowland portion of Scotland, about Edinburgh 
and Glasgow, is likewise noted for its cotton and 
woolen factories, and for its iron manufacturing. Glasgow 
is the greatest center for steel shipbuilding in the world. 
What city in the United States is noted for shipbuilding ? 

Great numbers of people are employed in all this work, 
so that enough cloth, knives, needles, engines, and so forth 
are made to supply many parts of the world. 

Ireland is not so much interested in manufacturing, al- 



228 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



though linen is an important product, being manufactured 
especially at Belfast. It is really to a great extent a 
farm for the English, furnishing them butter, eggs, pota- 
toes, and also meat. The air is so moist that the grass 
is kept fresh and green, and on that account Ireland is 
often called the Emerald (or Green) Isle. The two largest 

cities are naturally 
on the side next to 
England. What are 
their names ? 

So many manu- 
factured goods must 
be shipped away 
from Great Britain, 
and so much food 
imported, that the 
shipping business is 
FlG - 183 - very important. For 

Thatched cottages in Ireland. ^^ reason there are 

many skillful sailors in Great Britain, and that nation has 
more ships upon the sea than any other in the world. 

Having so many ships, the British have been led to explore coun- 
tries in all parts of the world. Whenever they discovered new lands, 
they laid claim to them in the name of their government, and in that 
way England has come into possession of Canada, Australia, India, 
several large countries in Africa, and scores of islands. These are 
called colonies, and the British have more of them than any other nation 
in the world. Indeed, these colonies cover one hundred times as much 
surface as the British Isles and have ten times as many inhabitants. 

London, the capital and the central port for vessels, 
has an excellent harbor on the Thames River, where hun- 
dreds of ships can be accommodated at one time. 




EUROPE 



229 



Great Britain and Ireland, together with their many 
colonies, form the British Empire. Its government, un- 
like our own, is a monarchy ; but it is very liberal, and 
as in our own country, the people have an important share 
in the making of laws. 




Fig. 186. 
The Thames River and Windsor Castle, where the King of England resides. 

II. Norse Countries. — Sweden and Norway. These 
two countries together occupy the Scandinavian peninsula, 
and are about as far north as southern Greenland. Were 
it not for the Gulf Stream, which flows past Norway, this, 
like Greenland, might be a barren, frozen country. 

As in Scotland, most of the country is too hilly and 
rocky for farming, although some grain, cattle, and sheep 



230 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



are raised, especially on the lower land of southern Sweden 
along the Baltic. Few people live in the highlands, and. 

about one fourth of 
Norway is covered by 
forests. 

The coast is very irregular, 
and many deep, narrow bays, 
or fjords, reach into the land, 
making fine harbors. As a re- 
sult, Norwegians and Swedes 
are skillful sailors. In the 
early days these Northmen 
were the best sailors in the 
world, and they came to the 
American shores long before 
Columbus discovered America. 




Fig. 187. 
One of the deep, narrow fjords of Norway 

Fishing for cod and herring is now one of their important industries 



The principal cities are Stockholm and Chiustiania. 
Find each. They 
are* the capitals of 
Sweden and Norway, 
two prosperous king- 
doms which until 
recently were under 
one king. 

Denmark, just 
south of Norway and 
Sweden, is inhabited 
by people similar to 
those in Scandinavia ; FlG - m 

in fact, these three Danish women selling fish. 

are often called the Norse nations, or the nations of the 
Northmen. 




EUROPE 231 

The Danes, also, have been great sailors, and now have possession 
of Iceland and the west coast of Greenland. Their country presents 
a very different appearance from Norway and Sweden, for the land is 
low and level, and farming is the occupation of about one half the 
people. Fishing is also an important industry. 

The government is a monarchy, the capital and largest 
city being Copenhagen, situated on an island. 

III. Russia. — The Russian Empire not only includes 
great plains in Europe, but extends several thousand miles 
beyond the Ural Mountains to the eastern coast of Asia ; 
it is larger than the whole of the continent of North 
America and contains a greater number of inhabitants. 

Most of Russia in Europe is a level country. The northern part, 
like northern Norway, is in the frigid zone, and so far away from the 
Gulf Stream that the climate is extremely cold. The plains there, 
called tundras, are too cold for trees, and. the frost never leaves the 
ground except at the very surface in summer. Nevertheless, a moss 
flourishes and supports numbers of reindeer, which are used as draft 
animals by the natives. 

The southeastern plains, called steppes, are so far from 
the ocean that the west winds can bring them little rain. 
They are therefore dry like the arid region in our Western 
states. But the central and western parts are well suited 
to farming, and there most of the people live. As in the 
northern United States, one of their main crops is grain, 
especially wheat ; and vast numbers of cattle and sheep 
roam over the broad, grassy steppes. 

The rivers are excellent waterways, the largest of all 
being the Volga, the greatest river in Europe. What 
others do you find? 

Since the Caspian Sea has no outlet, and the Arctic 
Ocean on the north side is frozen much of the time, the 
chief ports for foreign commerce must be either on the 



232 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Baltic or the Black Sea. This explains the location of 
St. Petersburg, the capital and largest city, which is 
about the size of Philadelphia. Odessa, on the Black 
Sea, contains many flour mills and is an important port 
for the export of wheat. With what two cities northwest 
of Chicago may it be compared ? 

The chief railway center and second city in size is 
Moscow in the interior. 




Fig. 189. 
A family of Russian peasants. 

The great mass of the people, called peasants, are allowed to take 
little part in the government, and, unlike most of the Europeans, 
are kept in ignorance and subjection. They are ruled by a man 
called the Czar, who makes and executes laws very much as he 
pleases. That kind of government is called an absolute monarchy, 
or despotism, and is very different from the limited monarchies 
thus far studied. 



EUROPE 



233 



IV. Germany. — The general slope of the land in Ger- 
many is shown by the rivers ; in what direction do most 
of them flow ? The southern part of the country consists 
of mountains and highlands, but the northern part is a 
great plain, a continuation of the plains of Russia. 

As in Russia, there is much agriculture, one of the 
chief products being grain. Much of their bread is made 
from a grain called 
rye, and is so dark 
that it is called 
"black bread." 
Beets are grown 
in enormous quan- 
tities, and sugar is 
manufactured from 
them as it is from 
sugar cane in 
Louisiana. Grapes 
flourish along the 
upper Rhine River, 
and from these 
wine is made ; and 
more hops for making beer are raised in Germany than 
in any other country of the world. 

Both coal and iron ore are mined in abundance; and many 
articles are manufactured, such as the famous Krupp guns 
and many kinds of machinery. Germany is noted also for 
its manufacture of cotton, woolen, and linen goods, ranking 
next to England as a manufacturing country of Europe. 

The chief seaport is Hamburg on the Elbe River, a 
rapidly growing city. Why should the chief port be at 
this point rather than farther east on the Baltic Sea? 




Fig. 190. 
A castle on the Rhine. 



234 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



The schools, universities, and museums of Germany are among 
the best that exist, and many Americans go to Germany each year to 
study music, painting, and other subjects. The largest university is 
in Berlin; Leipzig also has one, and there are many others. Mu- 
nich and Dresden are noted for their fine picture galleries, and so 
is Berlin, which also has other large museums. Find these cities. 




Fig. 191. 
The Royal Museum at Berlin. 

Berlin, the capital of Germany, is the largest city. 
The government is a limited monarchy, and the present 
ruler is Emperor William II. 

V. Holland; or the Netherlands (a word that means 
lowlands), is a low, flat country, much of it being lower 
than the neighboring sea. 

The inhabitants have built embankments, called dikes, to keep 
the sea out, and have dug canals across the country to drain it. The 
water that collects inside the embankments is pumped out by wind- 
mills, or by steam, into the canals, and these canals are the chief 
roads, being used in summer by boats and in winter by people on 
skates or on sleds. 

The damp soil furnishes excellent grass, so that cattle raising and 
dairying are the principal occupations. 



EUROPE 



235 



The Hollanders, or Dutchmen, living so near the sea, have become 
great sailors and explorers, like the Englishmen. For this reason 
they have come into possession of some of the richest islands in the. 
East Indies, from which are obtained valuable products, such as 
coffee, spices, and precious stones. On the map, Fig. 221, facing 




Fig. 192. 
A canal in Holland. 



page 271, find the names of some of the Dutch East Indies. Find 
out about the early Dutch settlements in America. What great city 
did they settle ? 

The chief city is Amsterdam, with a population 
of half a million people. The government is a mon- 
archy, and the laws are made at The Hague, on the 
coast. 



236 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




VI. Belgium, like Holland, has some land that is lower 
than the sea and protected by dikes; but the eastern part 

is much higher. 

The people are crowded 
together more closely than 
in any other country of Eu- 
rope. Many live on farms and 
raise much the same prod- 
ucts as those of Holland and 
Germany. What are these? 

Flax is an important farm prod- 
uct. It is a plant about two feet 
high, whose fiber is used in mak- 
ing linen and fine laces. The Bel- 
gians have long been skillful in 
such work, and it was from them 
that the English received some of 
their knowledge about manufac- 
turing. Brussels, the largest city, is famous for its fine laces, linens, 
and Brussels carpets, the latter being made of wool on a mat of linen. 

There is a great amount of coal and iron in this little king- 
dom, so that the iron industry is extensive, as in Germany. 

The government is a monarchy with Brussels for its 
capital. Antwerp is the chief seaport. 

VII. France. — The slope of the land in France you 
see by the course of its rivers. What are their names ? 
Where do they rise and in what direction do they flow? 

In the cool northern part the crops are similar to those 
of Germany ; but in the southern portion the climate is 
warmer and the crops somewhat different. Besides grapes, 
which are grown in great quantities in the region of Bor- 
deaux, and made into wine that is sold in many parts of 
the world, much silk is also produced. 



Fig. 193. 

A windmill, in Belgium, like those 
so common in Holland. 



EUROPE 



237 



Silk is manufactured from cocoons spun by a caterpillar called the 
silkworm. Each one of the cocoons is made of a fine thread several 
thousand yards long, looking somewhat like the thread of a spider's 
web. 

After the cocoons have been softened in hot water the threads are 
unwound and then wound upon spools. They are later made into 
thread and woven into silk cloth, ribbons, handkerchiefs, and other 
silk goods. 

Lyon, the center for the silk industry, is the greatest 
silk market in the world. 




Fig. 194. 
A view of the great city of Paris. 



Paris, the largest city in France, is the third in size in 
the world, and probably the most beautiful. Like several 
cities in Germany, it has fine picture galleries and mu- 
seums, and many foreigners go there to study painting, 
music, and other subjects. It is situated upon the Seine 
River, and its chief port is Havre, at the mouth of the 
Seine. 



238 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




Fig. 195. 

The harbor of Marseille. 



Bordeaux is an important shipping port for wine, and 
Marseille is the principal port upon the Mediterranean 
coast. 

The French government is a republic with Paris as its 
capital. 

VIII. Spain and Portugal. — The Pyrenees Mountains 
form the boundary between France and Spain, rising like 
a great wall to separate the two countries. 

YoU remember that Magellan was a Portuguese and that 
it was to Spain that Columbus went for help. These were 
once among the most powerful nations in the world, and 
they once ruled much of North America and most of 
South America. Little by little they have lost their 
colonies in the New World, the last to be taken being 
Cuba and Porto Rico. 

Like Mexico, which was settled and for a long time owned 
by the Spanish, Spain has a dry, mountainous plateau or 
table-land in the interior, with low land along the coast. 



EUROPE 



239 



Being so much like a desert, one would expect few 
people to make their homes in the interior ; and this is the 
case, although, strange to say, the greatest city, Madrid, 
is found in the center of this table-land. Its importance 
is due to the fact that it is the capital of Spain. 




Fig. 196. 
A view of part of Madrid and the great plateau on which it is situated. 

As upon our dry Western plains and plateaus, cattle 
and sheep raising are important industries on this high- 
land. But the rocks of this region contain its chief 
wealth, for Spain produces more quicksilver and lead 
than any other nation, and more copper and iron than 
most others. 

Farming is carried on in the mountain valleys and on the lowlands 
along the coast. One of the most valuable crops is grapes. 

Barcelona, on the eastern side, is the chief port of 
Spain ; and the principal city of Portugal is Lisbon, the 
capital. 



240 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 



Both governments are limited monarchies, like those of 
most European countries. 

IX. Italy was once the most powerful country in the 
world. Its principal city was Rome, and the Romans 
ruled nearly all the other countries then known. But, 
like Spain, it has lost much of its importance. 




Fig. 197. 
St. Peter's Cathedral on the left, and the Vatican, the residence of the Pope, 

on the right. 

Rome is still the capital and the residence of the king ; 
also of the Pope, who is the head of the Roman Catholic 
Church. The city is especially noted for its many ruins 
of buildings erected hundreds of years ago. 

Venice, at the head of the Adriatic Sea, is another interesting city. 
It is built upon many islands joined by hundreds of bridges, and its 
chief streets are canals, where boats, called gondolas, are used in place 
of wagons and carriages. 



EUROPE 



241 



Naples, which is on the coast southeast of Rome, and 
near Mt. Vesuvius, is the largest city in Italy. The 
steam rising from the crater of Vesuvius is easily seen 
from the city (Fig. 102). Volcanic ash from Mt. Vesu- 
vius has entirely buried some of the towns near by, such 
as the ancient city of Pompeii, from which the ashes have 
been dug away so as to bring to light the buried build- 
ings and streets. 




Fig. 198. 
One of the canals of Venice, with a gondola floating upon it. 



The best farm land is in the valley of the Po River in the northern 
part, where wheat, and other grains, and mulberry trees for silk- 
worms are raised. Milan, like Lyon in France, is a great center for 
silk. 

The climate is mild enough to produce the same fruits that are 
grown in Florida and Southern California. Name some of them. 

X. Switzerland. — Any one who has heard the story of 
William Tell, or who has read about the St. Bernard 



242 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



dogs kept by the monks, has some idea of how Switzer- 
land looks. Here are the snow-capped Alps, with many 
lakes and fertile valleys between them, and views so 

beautiful that thou- 
sands of people go 
every year to enjoy 
them. One of the 
occupations of the 
Swiss is to provide 
for these visitors. 
in hotels and res- 
taurants. 




Fig. 199. 

The snow-capped Matterhorn, one of the Alpine 
peaks. 



The green grass in 
the low-lying valleys 
and on the mountain. 
sides provides excellent 
food for cattle and goats, so that butter and cheese are made, as in 
Holland. Probably you have heard of Swiss and Dutch cheese. 

Wood carving is also an important industry. During the long 
winters the wood grown upon the mountains is carved into toys, 
clocks, and many other articles. Have you ever seen a Swiss clock ? 
Name the countries on each side of Switzerland, and notice that it 
is surrounded by people who speak German, French, and Italian. In 
consequence, instead of having one language of their own, the Swiss 
have these three, those living in each part speaking the language of 
the foreign country nearest to them. 

The Swiss government has long been a republic, like 
our own, and Berne is the capital. Find the chief cities, 
Zurich and Geneva. 

XI. Austria-Hungary. — Austria and Hungary are 
united under one monarchy, although they have differ- 
ent customs and languages. Many of the Austrians are 
closely related to the Germans ; but the Hungarians are 



EUROPE 243 

a very different race. The capital and largest city is 
Vienna, the fourth in size in Europe. It is situated on 
the Danube River, so that it has water connection with 
many other places. 

Budapest is next to Vienna in importance. Like Minneapolis, it 
is in the midst of a great wheat region, and is a flour-milling center. 
The cultivation of flax leads to another manufacturing industry. 
What is it ? 




Fig. 200. 
A view in Austria. 

XII. Greece. — The country in Europe which has per- 
haps had the greatest influence upon the rest of the world 
is Greece. The Romans received many of their beliefs and 
customs from the Greeks ; and since many of ours come 
from the Romans, we also are greatly in debt to the 
Greeks. 

The center of this influence was Athens, once the most 
famous city in the world. Many years later, at the time 
of Christ, it was still an important place. Both Athens 
and Corinth, near by, are mentioned in the Bible. 

The country is mountainous, producing raisins and other fruits, 
and much grass for grazing. But there is little mining and manu- 
facturing. 



244 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



At one time the Greeks were conquered by the Turks and very- 
cruelly treated by them ; but they obtained their independence, and 
their government is now a monarchy with Athens for its capital. 




Fig. 201. 

The Acropolis with its ruins on top, and the ruins of the Temple of Jupiter on 
the right, Doth in ancient Athens. 

XIII. Turkey. — The largest city in southeastern Eu- 
rope is Constantinople, which has over one million 
inhabitants. Notice what an excellent location it has. 
It is the capital of Turkey, which, like Russia, is a 
country partly in Europe and partly in Asia. 

The Turkish government is the worst in Europe. The 
ruler, called the Sultan, is an absolute despot, who 
governs his people so badly that they are kept ex- 
tremely ignorant and poor. In all the other nations of 
Europe the Christian religion, either Catholic .or Protes- 
tant, is followed ; but the Turks are Mohammedans, 
followers of Mohammed, like many other people in Asia 



EUROPE 



245 



and Africa. They are religious fanatics, and dislike 
Christians very much. 

One proof that the Turkish government is bad, is the fact that the 
people in many parts of the Empire have rebelled against it and 
fought for their freedom. For example, Roumania, east of Austria, 
used to belong to Turkey, but 
it is now an independent king- 
dom. The same is true of Bul- 
garia, Servia, and Montenegro ; 
Greece has already been men- 
tioned. 

The people in all these 
countries are largely en- 
gaged in farming and 
herding, the Danube Val- 
ley being especially fertile. 
Grain, wine, and raisins 1G ' ~ J ' 

. , A mosque, or Mohammedan church, 

are important products. Constantinople. 




REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

I. The British Isles. Questions. — (1) What are the divisions of 
the British Isles? Where is each? (2) Why have not the British 
Isles a colder climate? (3) Tell about the agriculture. (4) What 
kinds of cloth are manufactured? Where? (5) Where is the iron 
manufacturing earned on ? (6) Of what value are the coal beds ? 
(7) Tell about Ireland. (8) Explain how Great Britain has come to 
have so many ships. (9) So many colonies. Name some of them, 
including several islands near North America. (10) What is the 
British Empire ? What kind of government has it? (11) Locate all 
the cities mentioned. 

Suggestions. — (12) What books have you read whose authors lived 
in Great Britain ? (13) Examine pocket-knives and table-knives to see 
if you can find some made in England. (14) The iron manufactories 
of England remind you of what states in this country? (15) When 
did our country cease to be a colony of Great Britain ? (16) What 



246 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

are the people from the four divisions of the British Isles called? 
(17) Make a drawing of the British Isles. 

II. Norse Countries. Questions. — (18) What about the climate 
of Norway and Sweden ? (19) Tell about the agriculture ; the other 
industries. (20) What are the Norse nations? (21) What colonies 
have the Danes ? (22) Name the chief industries of Denmark. 
(23) What kind of government have these Norse countries? and 
what is the capital of each ? 

Suggestions. — (24) Find out something about Iceland. (25) In 
what other section that you have studied is fishing important ? 

(26) Find out about the length of days and nights in Norway. 

(27) Draw a map of the Scandinavian peninsula. 

III. Russia. Questions. — (28) Tell about the size of Russia. 
(29) What parts of Russia in Europe are not fitted for farming ? 
Why? (30) What is the main occupation of the people ? Name the 
important products. (31) What are the tundras? The steppes? 
(32) Which is the largest river in Europe ? (33) Whei - e are the lead- 
ing Russian ports ? (34) Locate three of the largest cities, and state 
why each is important. (35) Tell about the government. 

Suggestions. — (36) Why would you not expect Russian sailors 
to be as numerous as the English sailors ? (37) Name some city of 
the United States which is about as far north as Odessa. (38) How 
does the northern location of St. Petersburg interfere with its com- 
merce by sea? (39) What city on the St. Lawrence has the same 
difficulty ? (40) Show the route a vessel would take in going from 
Odessa to London. From Odessa to St. Petersburg. 

IV. Germany. Questions. — (41) Where is the highest land in 
Germany? The great plains ? (42) Tell about the chief farm prod- 
ucts. (43) What are the principal manufactures in Germany? 
(44) Where is Hamburg? (45) For what is Berlin noted? Leipzig? 
Munich? Dresden? Locate each. (46) Tell about the government. 

Suggestions. — (47) Do you know any songs or stories about the 
Rhine River? (48) Make a drawing showing the course of this river. 
(49) Do you know of any German paintings? Of any music written 
by Germans? (50) Make a collection of German pictures. 

V. Holland. Questions. — (51) Tell about the dikes and canals of 
Holland. (52) What is the principal industry? Why? (53) What 
important colonies has Holland ? (54) What are the main cities ? 



EUROPE 247 

Suggestions. — (55) Write a story telling what you think might 
result if a dike were to give way. (56) Find a picture of a Dutch 
windmill. (57) Tell what you would expect to see in crossing Hol- 
land on a railway train. 

VI. Belgium. Questions. — (58) What are the farm products of 
Belgium? (59) Tell what you can about flax. (60) Name and locate 
the two principal cities. (61) What about coal and iron ? 

Suggestions. — (62) Examine a piece of Brussels carpet ; a piece 
of lace also. 

VII. France. Questions. — (63) Describe the chief slopes of 
France. (64) What are the products iu the northern part ? In the 
southern part? (65) Tell about the silk industry. (66) What can 
you say about the capital? (67) About each of the other cities? 
(68) What kind of government has France? 

• Suggestions. — (69) Examine a cocoon and a piece of silk. Ob- 
tain a caterpillar, if possible the silkworm, and raise it in the school 
to see how the silkworm forms silk and what happens to the 
"worm." (70) Why would the value of a cocoon be destroyed if 
the chrysalis inside were to break through in order to get out? 
(71) Can you find any pictures of Paris? 

VIII. Spain and Portugal. Questions. — (72) Where are the 
Pyrenees Mountains ? (73) Tell about the former power of these 
countries. (74) Describe the relief and climate. (75) What are the 
industries on the plateau? (76) What minerals are found there? 

(77) Where is most of the farming? What are the chief products? 

(78) Name and locate the most important coast cities. The two 
capitals. 

Suggestions. — (79) Would you expect the rivers to be naviga- 
ble for any considerable distance from the Spanish coast? Why? 

(80) Make a sand map of Spain, showing the high and low land. 

(81) Examine some quicksilver. For what is it used? (82) Can 
you find out anything about the Moors and the Alhambra in south- 
ern Spain? Perhaps you can find pictures from there. Washington 
Irving has written some beautiful stories about the Alhambra. 

IX. Italy. Questions. — (83) Where is Rome ? Venice ? Na- 
ples? Mt. Vesuvius? Milan? (84) Tell something about each of 
these. (85) Where are the mountains ? (86) Where is the Po Val- 
ley? (87) What is raised in Italy? 



248 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Suggestions. — (88) Find pictures of some^of the ruins in Rome. 
(89) Of some of the buildings in Venice. (90) Look on a globe to 
see in which direction Rome is from New York. (91) Draw a map 
of Italy. 

X. Switzerland. Questions. — (92) What are some of the in- 
dustries of the Swiss ? (93) What languages are spoken ? (94) Name 
the principal cities. (95) What is the kind of government? 

Suggestions. — (96) Read the story of William Tell. (97) Find 
other stories about Switzerland. (98) What disadvantages do you 
see in having so many languages? (99) What large rivers rise ip 
Switzerland ? (100) Write a story describing the St. Bernard dogs 
of Switzerland. 

XI. Austria-Hungary. Questions. — (101) Name four leading 
cities in Austria-Hungary. (102) Tell why each is important. 

Suggestions. — (103) Trace the Danube River from its source to 
its mouth. (104) How far is Trieste from Venice? (105) Through 
what waters would a vessel pass in sailing from New York to Trieste ? 
(106) By using the scale on the map, find out how far Vienna is from 
Munich. From Leipzig. From Berlin. From Paris. From St. 
Petersburg. (107) In what direction is it from each of these ? 

XII. Greece. Questions. — (108) What can you say about the 
influence of Greece upon the world ? (109) Find Athens. (110) Tell 
about the climate and products. 

Suggestions. — (111) Where can you read about Ulysses? 

(112) Have some one tell you the story of the Trojan War. 

(113) Find some other stories about the ancient Greeks. 

XIII. Turkey. Questions. — (114) Where is Turkey? What is 
its capital? (115) Tell about its government. (116) What is the 
chief occupation of the people? (117) What countries have gained 
their independence from Turkey ? 

Suggestions. — (118) What is the boundary line between Tur- 
key in Europe and Turkey in Asia? (119) Examine a Turkish rug. 
(120) What reasons can you give why Russia would like to own 
Constantinople ? 

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 

(121) Do you know of any persons who have come from one of 
these countries of Europe ? If so, ask them to tell you about them. 



EUROPE 



249 



Also have them speak in their native language. (122) Ask a 
merchant to show you some goods from Europe. (123) What diffi- 
culties would you expect to meet if you were to travel through Europe 
without knowing any foreign languages? (124) Bound each of the 
countries of Europe. (125) Draw an outline map of Europe, putting 
in these boundaries and the principal rivers. (126) Make a dot to 
represent Berlin; also locate the other large cities. Mark the capitals 
with stars. (127) Collect pictures of Europe for the school collection. 
(128) Cut out scraps, from the magazines and papers, relating to the 
people, animals, plants, cities, etc., of different parts of Europe and 
present them to the school to be kept for use in the geography class. 
They can be arranged by countries and will be very useful. 
For References, see page 331. 




Modem means of travel in Europe, America, and other countries. 



XIX. ASIA 

Map Questions. — (1) Through what zones does Asia extend? 
(2) What climate would you expect to find? (3) "Where are the 
highest mountains and plateaus? (4) What rivers have their sources 
in that region? (5) What large inland seas do you find? (6) What 
three large peninsulas on the southern side ? (7) What three were 
found on the south side of Europe ? (8) How does Asia compare in 
size with Europe? (9) Find Asia on a globe. (10) How could you 
reach it, if you wished to go there? (11) On the map, which way is 
north from the British Isles? From Kamchatka? 

Physical Geography. — Like Europe, the coast of Asia 
is very irregular, with many peninsulas and islands. 
Draw an outline map of it, showing these, with the larger 
bays and seas inclosed by them. 

Note the direction in which the many mountain ranges 
extend. The loftiest among them, and in fact the highest 
in the world, are the Himalaya Mountains, the highest 
peak, Mt. Everest, being over twenty-nine thousand 
feet, or about five and one half miles above the sea. 
Where is it ? How does it compare in height with Mt. 
Blanc? (Seep. 341.) 

North of the Himalayas are lofty plateaus, one of them, 
the plateau of Tibet, being about three miles in height. 
How does that compare with the Spanish plateau (see 
p. 342) and with our western plateau (see p. 342) ? 
It is so high that the winter climate is very cold ; and 
since the winds from' the ocean have lost their moisture 
in passing over the mountains, these plateaus are also 

250 




Fig. 203. 



pp^^"~~ 


P" 1 ':• 




: : ' 


"' if-'" 

• A r-- ■*--■":.,, ■; ; .•■•..-.-.-... -" -'■ "■ ■ - - >a 

'j|/^';l, -V . : -^-;-. ; '*ffe' -'..'mj^'t 





Picking Tea in India. 




Asiatic buffalo, used as a work animal in southern and western Asia, eastern 
Europe, and northwestern Africa. 



ASIA 



251 



dry. Farther north it is drier still, and we find there 
the great desert of Gobi. 

These mountains and plateaus form the watershed of the con- 
tinent. Find three great rivers that flow northward from the water- 
shed through the vast plain of Siberia. Name three that flow 
eastward into the Pacific Ocean. What others flow southward? 




Fig. 204. 
A native village near Calcutta — notice the bamboo on the right. 

From what has been said about the climate it is plain that the 
inhabitants of this continent must be found chiefly in the eastern 
and southern parts. There they live in vast numbers along the 
coast and the large rivers ; in fact, nearly one half of all the people 
in the world are found in these regions. 

I. Southwestern Asia. — Rome and Athens have been 
mentioned as cities that have had a great influence upon 
other countries. But the part of the world which has 
probably had the greatest influence of all is that at the 



252 



THE earth as a whole 



eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. Here is the land 
that used to be called Palestine, the home of the Jews ; 
and here is still the city of Jerusalem (Fig. 205), near 
which Christ was born about nineteen hundred years ago, 
and in which He was crucified. The Christian churches 
and Christmas are in His memory. The home of Christ, 
where the Christian religion was founded, is now a part 
of the Turkish empire which extends into Asia. 

Turkey extends down the western coast of the Arabian peninsula, 
and includes another famous city called Mecca. The Turks are not 
Christians but Mohammedans, or followers of Mohammed, who was 




Fig. 205. 
A picture of a part of Jerusalem. 

born at Mecca nearly fourteen hundred years ago. The Mohamme- 
dans believe in God, and their holy book is called the Koran. A 
great many other people in Asia and northern Africa are followers of 
Mohammed. 

The western part of Asia, including Turkey, Arabia, 
and Persia, has a very dry or arid climate. This is par- 
ticularly true of Arabia, which is mainly a desert plateau 
much more arid than Spain. 

In this desert country agriculture is not a very impor- 



ASIA 



253 



tant industry; but dates and coffee are raised there, espe- 
cially near the rivers and along the coast. You have per- 
haps heard of Mocha coffee, and if you look on the map 
you can find the place from which it gets its name. 

Although so much of this region is desert, there are places, called 
oases, where water is found. As these are usually too small to fur- 
nish water and grass for large herds during a long time, the Arabs 
are forced to wander from place to place, having no fixed homes. On 



miMiifliL iJFMlLiiiiii inWPi *nii i '*YffMP 




1 AT i1iTiii«iii 1 


HHSflHKsflBBflHBH 





Fig. 206. 
A group of Persian natives on the desert of eastern Asia. 

that account they are called nomads or wanderers (Fig. 206). They 
take special pride in raising horses, which have become famous 
throughout the world. They also keep cattle, sheep, goats, and camels. 

Much of Persia is also a desert; but some parts are well 
suited to grazing, and the climate is warm enough for 
such fruits as figs and dates. What is the capital? The 
ruler of the Persians is a despot called the Shah. 

The people of these countries are not civilized enough to carry on 
much manufacturing, although beautiful carpets, rugs, and shawls 
are made in great numbers, especially in Persia and Turkey. The 



254 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



work is done by hand, and though it is well done, it requires a great 
deal of time, while in our great factories carpets are quickly made by 
machinery. Railways are almost unknown, and even carriage roads 
are usually lacking. Goods are carried upon camels in groups, called 
caravans, and men travel upon the backs of horses and camels. 

II. Siberia. — Siberia belongs to Russia. It is a region 
of extensive plains and is mucb larger than the whole of 
Russia in Europe. Like northern Canada, much of it is 




Fig. 207. 
A village in Siberia. 

so cold that few people can live there, and it has been 
made a prison for many Russians who have committed 
crime, or who have offended their despotic rulers. 

A large portion of southwestern Siberia is a desert having numerous 
lakes without outlets. Would you expect them to be salt or fresh? 
Between this arid section and the bleak northern plains, or tundras, 
which resemble those of northern Europe, is a region where there are 
extensive forests, and broad plains suited for grazing and farming. 

One of the chief sources of wealth of Siberia is in the gold mines 
of the Ural Mountains. Graphite, from which the " lead " in lead 
pencils is made, is also found there. Many of the prisoners from 
Russia are compelled to work in these mines. 



ASIA 



255 



The Russian government has built a great railway all the way 
from St. Petersburg eastward to Vladivostok on the Pacific coast. 
How far is that ? 

III. The Chinese Empire and Korea. — Some of the most 
important arts that we have ever learned first came from 
the Chinese. For instance, they made porcelain dishes 
long before Europeans knew how, and on that account 




Fig. 208. 
Houseboats on the Tientsin River of China. 



those dishes are still called Chinaware, even though manu- 
factured in the United States. They invented gunpow- 
der, and our firecrackers for the Fourth of July used to 
come from China. They also discovered how to make 
silk and paper, and they invented the art of printing. 

But while this strange -looking, yellow race was once among the 
foremost nations of the earth, it is now very much behind. This is 
explained partly by the fact that their religion causes them to wor- 
ship their ancestors, so that whatever their fathers did, they must do. 
Since their fathers had no railways, telegraphs, or telephones, none 
are wanted now. Owing to their fear of new things, they have 
neither traveled abroad much nor allowed foreigners to visit them. 

But recently many Chinese have come to this country, working as 
servants, especially on the Pacific coast, and as laundrymen in all 



256 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



parts of our country. Besides that, they now allow foreigners to live 
in some of their coast cities and trade with the people. 

Canton in the southern part is especially noted for its 
silk. It is the largest city in China. . Shanghai is an- 
other large city. Both are important ports for trade with 
Americans. Hongkong is a British port. 

Much of the northern and western portions of the Chinese Empire 
are so high and dry that few persons can live there. Find the names 
of those parts. But the lower plains near the coast, especially the 
fertile flood plains and deltas of the great rivers, support a vast popu- 
lation, because the soil is fertile, and abundant rainfall is supplied by 
the damp winds from the Pacific. Here live nearly one fourth of all 
the inhabitants of the globe, crowded together so closely that many 
thousands dwell in boats on the rivers. 

In the northern part a great deal of wheat is raised ; 
but farther south rice, millet, tea, and silk are important 

products. China 
produces more 
raw silk than any 
other country in 
the world. What 
other regions are 
noted for these 
same products ? 

The. govern- 
ment is an abso- 
lute monarchy, 
with the capital at 
Peking, situated 
some distance in 
the interior. Peking and Tientsin, its seaport, have 
about three quarters of a million inhabitants each. 





'"ir *' 


fUftffiW ■ *^^ ^^^.^^, 


j4 







Fig. 209. 
Temple in Peking. 



ASIA 



257 



Korea is also a very unprogressive nation which, until recently, 
would not permit foreigners to enter. 

IV. Japan. — The Japanese live upon islands east of Asia, 
as the British do west of Europe. Their territory is but 
slightly larger than 
the British Isles, and 
there are not many 
more inhabitants. 
Many of the islands 
are small, but there 
are five large ones, the 
southernmost being 
Formosa. They are 
really the crest of a 
mountain range ris- 
ing above the sea, and 
some of the mountain 
peaks are volcanoes. 



Km 




j| ''?■ -JiH 




\JSjm 










SbPa 


%*#- - ; '-M- -"^T" 


%l 




PJTf^Jj 


KcJ^mI 


&jl3 






BKfi SJSfiwffi 


i&~~ 








2 


r 


rafeftsjgggfc 


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Fig. 210. 

A Japanese woman being carried in a traveling 
chair by two Japanese men. 



The Japanese used to "be much like their neighbors, the Chinese; 
that is, they believed foreigners inferior, and wanted nothing to do 
with them. But in 1853 an American naval officer, with several war- 
ships, entered the harbor of Yokohama and persuaded the Japanese 
to allow us to trade with them. 

Before many years had passed the Japanese not only allowed for- 
eigners to enter, but they invited them to come as teachers, and even 
sent some of their own young men abroad to study. There have 
been many Japanese students in the colleges and universities of the 
United States during the last twenty years. 

The great war between Russia and Japan (1904-05) was fought for 
the control of Korea and proved that Japan had learned much from 
the western nations in the arts of war and peace. Japan is now far 
in advance of all other countries of Asia. Railways, telephones, and 
newspapers are common, and there are many good schools, while 
vapid progress has been made in manufacturing. 



258 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



That the Japanese are very skillful in many kinds of 
handiwork is suggested by the Japanese fans, parasols, 

napkins, dolls, and 
screens so often seen 
in this country. 
Whatever they 
make they try to 
make beautiful, be- 
ing one of the most 
artistic races in the 
world. 

Japan, like China, 
produces a great 
amount of silk, rice, 
and tea. There is 
also some mining. 

The principal 
city and capital is 
Tokio, one of the 
large cities of the 
world, and the 
home of the emperor, called the Mikado. Its seaport is 
Yokohama, at the entrance of Tokio Bay. 

V. India and Indo-China. — India, the central one of 
the three peninsulas on the southern side of Asia, is the 
country that Columbus thought he had reached when he 
discovered America. Hence the name " Indians " for the 
savages whom he met. 

The damp winds from the Indian Ocean furnish the plains and 
mountains of India with so much rain that in places the forests form 
a perfect tangle or jungle of luxuriant vegetation, in which live 
tigers, elephants, and many other wild animals. 




Fig. 211. 

The way Japanese babies are carried by the young 

girls. The baby leaning back is asleep. 



Asia 259 

Several vevy large rivers rise in the Himalayas and flow across the 
plains. One is the Indus, from which the word India comes, and 
also the word Hindoos, as the inhabitants are sometimes called. 
The river flowing southeast is the Ganges, on which is the capital 
and largest city, Calcutta. 

One of the chief reasons why England holds India is 
for the important crops raised there. Cotton, one of the 




Fig. 212. 
Idols in a cave near Bombay. 

principal products, is shipped to England to be made 
into cloth, and then some of this cloth is shipped back 
to India and sold. Where else have we found a similar 
situation ? 

Wheat is another great product, and since England 
cannot raise enough of that food for herself, she se- 
cures some of it from India. Other crops are poppies, 
from which opium is made, silk, rice, tea, coffee, and 
sugar. 



260 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




Fig. 213. 
A view in the palace grounds at Bangkok, Siam. 



The peninsula east 
of India, called Indo- 
China, and the East 
Indian Islands south 
of it, are other places 
that Columbus wished 
to reach. Here are 
found precious stones, 
such spices as pepper, 
nutmeg, and cinnamon, 
and other valuable 
products, which were 
carried by caravans to 
Europe long before the 
time of Columbus. 
Many of these prod- 
ucts are now shipped 
from Singapore, an 
English city on an is- 
land at the southern 
end of the Malay pen- 
insula. The greatest 
city in Indo-China is 
Bangkok, the chief 
seaport and the capital 
of the kingdom of 
Siam. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

I. Southwestern Asia. Questions. — (1) What part of Asia has 
had the greatest influence upon the civilized world ? Tell about it. 
(2) To what nation does Palestine belong? (3) What other parts 
of Asia belong to it? (4) Tell about Mecca. (5) Describe Arabia. 
(6) How do the Arabians live ? (7) What do you know about Per- 
sia? (8) How do people travel in those countries ? 

Suggestions.— (9) What is meant by the date 1900? (10) What 
buildings in your neighborhood have been erected in the memory of 



ASIA 261 

Christ? (11) What stories in the Bible have you read that tell about 
places mentioned in this book or on the map? (12) What reasons 
can you suggest why the Turks have not taken possession of the inte- 
rior of Arabia, as well as of the coast? (13) Does your grocer sell 
Mocha coffee? (14) Examine a Persian or Turkish rug. (15) Learn 
.how camels are especially fitted to live in desert countries. 

II. Siberia. Questions. — (16) Point toward Siberia. (17) Tell 
about the climate. (18) In what occupations are the people engaged? 
(19) How does Siberia compare in size with Russia? 

Suggestions. — (20) What advantage will the railway be to 
Russia ? (21) How does that railway compare in length with those 
reaching across the United States ? (22) What object do you see in 
having the eastern terminus, Port Arthur, so far south? 

III. Chinese Empire and Korea. Questions. — (23) Name some of 
the arts that we have learned from the Chinese. (24) What has 
made them so backward? (25) What special ports are open to 
American traders? (26) In what part of China do most of the peo- 
ple live ? Why there ? (27) What are the principal products ? 
(28) What kind of a government has China? (29) Tell about 
Korea. 

Suggestions. — (30) How can you distinguish a Chinaman from 
other men? (31) How does the number of people in China compare 
with the number in the whole of Europe ? (See the table on p. 333.) 
(32) Write a story telling some of the differences between life in 
America and in China. (33) Draw the two chief rivers in China. 
(34) How might railways in China help to prevent the awful famines 
that they have there ? (35) Find out about Confucius. About the 
Great Wall of China. 

IV. Japan. Questions. — (36) Where is Japan ? (37) In what 
way have the Japanese been like the Chinese ? (38) How have they 
differed ? (39) Why are they called an artistic race ? (40) What 
are their chief products ? (41) Name and locate the chief cities. 

Suggestions. — (42) Make a collection of Japanese articles, as 
paper napkins, fans, etc. (43) Examine them to see in what 
respect they are artistic. (44) Collect pictures of Japanese houses 
and people. 

V. India and Indo-China. Questions. — (45) What nation owns 
India? (46) What rivers in northern India? (47) Locate the chief 



262 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



cities. (48) What are the products? (49). What advantages does 
England enjoy in owning India? (50) Name the peninsula east of 
India. (51) What comes from there? (52) Find Singapore. 

Suggestions. — (53) How far was Columbus from India when he 
discovered America ? (54) What route should he have taken if he 
had continued his voyage to India? (55) What is the shortest route 
from Bombay to London ? Through what waters would a vessel pass ? 

VI. Review. — (56) Draw an outline map of Asia and put in the 
boundary lines of the principal countries; also the rivers, mountains, 
and cities. (57) Find out about foreign missions to Asia. 

For References, see page 331. 




U. S. Barracks, " Goat Island," San Francisco Bay. 




Victoria Falls, Africa. 



XX. AFRICA 

Map Questions. — (1) What continent does Africa most resem- 
ble in shape? (2) In what parts are the chief mountain ranges? 

(3) Find the main slopes on the continent by a study of the rivers. 

(4) Name and trace the three largest rivers. (5) About how much 
of Africa lies in the torrid zone? (6) How does its coast line compare 
with that of Europe as to regularity? (7) What influence must that 
have upon the harbors ? 

The Dark Continent. — Although Africa is so near 
Europe that they almost join at the Strait of Gibraltar, 
and although it is one of the oldest continents that history 
tells about, it is the least known of them all. 

There are several reasons for this. In the first place, 
south of the Mediterranean Sea is a broad desert, extend- 
ing entirely across the continent. This, a part of which is 
called the Sahara Desert (Fig. 69), is about a thousand 
miles wide, and very difficult to cross. 

Far south of this desert, for more than a thousand miles, 
the country is covered with a forest where the rainfall 
is heavy ; and near the equator the vegetation is so rank 
that an almost impenetrable jungle is formed, like the 
Amazon jungle. It is inhabited by large and fierce ani- 
mals, such as the elephant, rhinoceros, and lion. 

The rivers offer further obstacles to travel. The con- 
tinent is mainly a plateau, varying from one fourth to one 
and one half miles in height ; and its rivers on approach- 
ing the ocean have numerous rapids and falls, so that boats 
cannot make their way upstream. 

263 



264 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Not only.are there deserts, unnavigable rivers, and dense 
forests with fierce animals, but there are hordes of savages 
belonging to the black race. It was from Africa that 
negroes were first brought to our country as slaves, and 
on that account those now here are often called Africans. 




Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N. Y. 

Fig. 215. 

The Great Pyramid and the Sphinx. What animals are those standing on 
the desert sands near the Sphinx ? 

Here, then, are several reasons why we know so little 
about Africa, which, because of this, and because so many 
blacks live there, is sometimes called the "dark continent." 

Northern Africa. — The African side of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, being so close to Asia and Europe, has long 
been settled by the white race. Many of the inhabitants 
are Arabs, who, being believers in Mohammed, still make 



AFRICA 



265 



pilgrimages to Mecca in Arabia, like other followers of 
that prophet. 

The best-known "country in this section is Egypt, and 
Cairo, its capital, is the largest city in Africa, having 
more than half a million people. Alexandria is the 
chief Egyptian port. 

This is the country over which the Pharaohs, the kings of Egypt, 
used to rule ; and the ruins of the immense pyramids and monu- 
ments that they built thousands of years ago may still be seen. 
Here, the Bible tells, Moses once lived ; aud Joseph also. What 
stories do you remember about them ? 




Fig. 216. 
A family camped on an oasis in the desert of Morocco. 

Most of Egypt is a desert country, like Arabia on the one 
side and the Sahara Desert on the other. The Nile River 
flows through this desert, and every year the heavy floods, 
from the mountains of Abyssinia and the forest country 
near the equator, cause it to rise higher and higher until it 



266 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



overflows its banks. These floods, spreading out over the 
flood plain and level delta of the Nile, irrigate the land. 

As in other rivers, the water carries with it an abundance 
of mud, which settles in a thin layer of rich soil upon the 
flood plain, making it so fertile that excellent crops of 
cotton, sugar cane, and grain can be raised after the. water 
is gone. By this means millions of people obtain food, 
although they live in a desert region. 




Fig. 217. 
The Suez Canal at Port Said. 

The eastern part of Egypt includes the Isthmus of Suez, which con- 
nects Africa with Asia. Because of this narrow neck of land, ships 
sailing from Europe to Asia were compelled to go all the way round 
Africa; but in 1869 a canal one hundred miles long (Eig. 217) was 
completed across the isthmus, so that vessels can now make a short 
cut. Estimate how many miles are saved by the Suez Canal in going 
from London to Calcutta. 

Name the countries west of Egypt along the Mediter- 
ranean coast. What are their capitals ? Most of them, 



AFRICA 



267 



like Egypt itself, are controlled by countries of Europe. 
Their products are similar to those on the northern side 
of the Mediterranean. What are some of them? 

On the desert of Sahara few people are able to live. Some parts 
are sandy plains, while others are rocky and hilly, and in places even 




Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N. Y. 

Fig. 218. 
Kaffirs, South African savages. 



268 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



mountainous. But here and there, as in Arabia, are oases where 
water comes from underground, so that grass and date palms are able 
to grow. Sometimes these oases are so large that villages are built 
upon them ; and the caravans that cross the desert to bring ivory and 
other products from the south, make their stops at these places. Some 
of these caravans consist of hundreds of camels, so that there is need 
of much food and water. 

Central Africa. — Until a few years ago this was a wil- 
derness that no civilized man had ever visited; but now 
much of it has been explored. The natives are mainly 
savage blacks; and the Arabs, who go there to purchase 
ivory, still carry large numbers of them away as slaves. 

The northern part is 
called the Sudan. Near 
the borders of the Sa- 
hara the country is a 
desert ; but this condi- 
tion gradually changes 
until, farther south, the 
land is covered with a 
dense tropical forest, 
for the rains are heavy 
near the equator. In 
this region live the lion, 
rhinoceros, giraffe, and 
elephant, the latter be- 
ing killed for the sake of 
its ivory tusks. Some 
of the forest woods are valuable, and the rubber tree 
flourishes there. 

The two great rivers of this region are the Niger, north of the 
equator, and the Kongo, south of it. They are the main roads lead- 
ing inland, although their falls and rapids greatly interfere with 




Fig. 219. 
A pair of ostriches in South Africa. 



AFRICA 



269 



travel. Throughout that entire region there are almost no wagon 
roads, so that goods must be carried either on the rivers or over paths 
or trails in pack trains. But this situation is improving as the 
nations of Europe obtain more and more control. At the present 
time, several European countries claim parts of Africa. 

South Africa. — Southern Africa is the best-developed 
section of the continent. It was originally settled by the 
Dutch, though England has taken possession of a portion 
of it. Part of it is a high plateau, with a warm temperate 




Fig. 220 
A diamond mine at Kimberley. 

climate, having many of the same products as our own 
country. Most of the people are engaged in farming and 
ranching, producing grain, wool, and hides. Ostrich 
farming is an important industry in Cape Colony, the 
beautiful feathers of the male bird being very valuable. 
Johannesburg is the center of the richest gold-mining 



270 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

region in the world, and more diamonds are obtained from 
near Kimberley than from any other part of the globe. 
Portions of southern Africa have long been settled by 
Europeans and much of it is now owned by England, the 
oldest colony being Cape Colony, the capital of which is 
Cape Town. Consequently many railways and good 
wagon roads have been built, and many other advances 
have been made. 

Review Questions. — (1) Why is so little known about Africa ? 
(2) Why is it called the " dark continent " ? (3) Which is the best- 
known country in northern Africa ? (4) Name and locate its two 
chief cities. (5) Tell about the Nile River. (6) About the Suez 
Canal. (7) About the Sahara Desert. (8) Where is the Sudan? 
What animals live there? (9) What two great rivers are in Central 
Africa? (10) How are goods carried from place to place? (11) 
What influence are the nations of Europe having upon Africa? 
(12) What climate has Southern Africa? What are the occupations 
of the people ? 

Suggestions. — (1) What reasons can you give why Timbuktu 
should be an important trade center? (2) The caravans composed 
of camels travel at the rate of about sixteen miles per day. How 
long would it probably take for a caravan to travel from Timbuktu 
to Tripoli on the Mediterranean coast? (3) One camel can carry 
about four hundred pounds. How many tons could a caravan of 
s?x hundred camels carry? (4) What are some of the dangers of a 
journey across the desert? (5) Beginning with the western Sahara, 
trace the desert country that extends across Africa and Asia. (6) Why 
should the two largest cities in Africa be located at or near the mouth 
of the Nile River ? (7) Find some object made of ivory and show 
it to the class. (8) Examine an ostrich feather and a diamond. 
(9) Why are there no tributaries to the northern half of the Nile? 
What part of the river, then, probably has most water ? (10) Find 
out about the war between the Boers (those living in the South Afri- 
can Republic and Orange Free State) and the British. (11) Draw 
an outline map of Africa and put in the main rivers and cities. 

For References, see page 332. 




A pineapple field in the Hawaiian Islands. 




Native Kanaka boys with surf hoards and canoe, Hawaiian Islands. Kanaka 
boys and girls are expert swimmers. 



XXI. AUSTRALIA, THE EAST INDIES, PHILIP- 
PINES, AND THE OTHER ISLANDS OF THE 
PACIFIC 

Map Questions. — (1) Find Australia on a globe and show how 
you would reach it from New York in a vessel. Through what waters 
would you pass? (See Fig. 120.) (2) From San Francisco? From 
London? (3) In what part are most of the mountains? (4) The 
rivers? (5) The cities ? (6) In what zones is Australia? (7) Will 
there be any cold winter on this continent ? (8) Look on a globe to 
see what other continents are in the same zones. 

(9) What are the principal islands of the East Indies? FindBata- 
via. (10) In what direction are the Philippine Islands from Austra- 
lia? (11) Estimate the distance. (12) Find the Hawaiian Islands. 

I. Australia. — The names of the three eastern divi- 
sions of Australia, — Victoria, New South Wales, and 
Queensland — suggest the country to which this continent 
belongs. Which is it ? The various sections of Austra- 
lia have been joined into one confederation similar to 
Canada and our own confederation of states. 

Australia is the smallest of the continents, being about 
the size of the United States, not including Alaska. It 
is a low plateau, with the chief mountain range on the 
eastern side. These mountains have much influence on 
the climate ; for, since the prevailing winds are from the 
southeast, as they reach this range, and rise to pass over 
it, they grow cooler and lose most of their moisture. If 
the mountains were on the western side, as the Andes are 
in South America, nearly the whole country might be 
well watered, like the Amazon Valley. As it is, however, 
s 271 



272 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



the eastern coast of Australia has abundant rain, while 
farther westward it becomes drier, until, at a distance of 
one hundred and fifty miles from the coast, farming is 
almost impossible. 

What about the country farther west ? With what 
part of Africa should it be compared? Where must the 




Fig. 222. 

A sheep run in Australia. The water in this artesian well rises from a layer 

of porous rock over six hundred feet helow the surface. 

chief rivers be? Where might we expect to find salt 
lakes? The best farm land? The principal cities and 
most of the people? 

Now examine the map to see if you are right. Where 
is the large desert? (It is dotted.) What is the name of 
the main river? There is often so little rain, even on the 
lower part of the Murray River Basin, that the river grows 



AUSTRALIA 



273 



smaller toward its mouth, and its chief tributary, the Dar- 
ling, dries up almost entirely. 

When the English began to colonize this country, they found it 
inhabited by a very low class of savages; and the plants and animals 
were found to be different from those elsewhere. A great part of the 
interior was covered with a low bush, called "scrub," having hard, 
prickly leaves and often growing so dense that it was difficult for one 
to make his way through it. It caused the country to 
look desolate indeed. 

There were none of the fierce animals common to 
other countries, the largest being the kangaroo, which is 
furnished with a sack or pouch for carrying its young. 
Instead of running on all fours, it jumps along on its 
hind legs, using its tail for support. 

Finding the plants and animals of little 
use, the English began to import some. 
Sheep were taken there and found to 
thrive ; for the temperature is so 
mild that they are not exposed to 
cold, and some of the plants fur- 
nish excellent food. Consequently, 
great sheep ranches or sheep runs, 
as they are called there, have been 
established. The best sections for 
this purpose are 
Victoria and 
New South 
Wales, where 
wool has become 
one of the chief 
exports. Indeed, Australian wool is the best in the world. 




ymltfftflt*- 



Fig. 223. 
An Australian kangaroo. 



The imported cattle have likewise multiplied, so that hides and 
meat are produced in abundance. Wheat and corn also flourish, and 
many fruits, such as we know, are now plentiful in that region. 



274 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

The presence of mountains suggests that metals might 
exist there, which is the case. For many years Australia 
has ranked as one of the most important gold-producing 
countries of the world. 

Since these industries have become very extensive, espe- 
cially in the rainy southeastern part, we see why several 
great cities have grown up in that section. The largest 
is Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, which has about a 
half million people. The next is Sydney, the capital of 
New South Wales, nearly as large ; and the third is Ade- 
laide, the capital of South Australia. 

An island, Tasmania, just south of Australia, is owned 
by the British, and has almost the same industries as 
Victoria. 

The New Zealand Islands are also British, and in the 
climate and the customs of the people they resemble Aus- 
tralia. What is the capital? What other city is found 
there? Do you remember the geysers for which the 
Yellowstone National Park is noted (p. 193)? New 
Zealand and Iceland are the only two other parts of the 
world where geysers are found. 

Manufacturing is not yet greatly developed, so that 
quantities of wool, hides, metals, etc., are exported, going 
mainly to England, since these are colonies of Great Brit- 
ain. Some of the imports that must be received in return 
you can probably name. 

II. The East Indies. — Between Australia and Asia are 
a large number of islands, many of them too small to place 
upon the map. What are the names of some of the largest 
of this group, or archipelago, known as the East Indies ? 
The one that you have probably heard about most often is 
Java, from which the Java coffee comes. Among the 



AUSTRALIA 



275 



forests of these islands are many different kinds of valu- 
able tropical woods. Sugar, tobacco, pepper, spices, and 
precious stones are other valuable products. 

These islands, like those of the Japanese Empire, are 
the crests of mountains in the sea. Among them are 
many very active volcanoes, some of them having caused 
terrible destruction by their frightful eruptions. The 
islands belong to European countries, and you will find 
the names of these countries marked on the map. 

III. The Philippine Islands. — The principal city on the 
Philippine Islands is Manila, on Luzon Island, where 
Admiral Dewey de- 
stroyed the Spanish 
fleet. 

Notice (Fig. 203) 
that they lie between 
the Japanese Islands 
and the East Indies, 
both of which were 
said to be mountain 
ranges in the sea. 
The Philippines are 
also mountains, form- 
ing a part of the 
same chain. 

There are valuable 
kinds of wood in the forests, and many mineral deposits; 
but these were never much used by the Spaniards. The 
chief products have been sugar, tobacco, and hemp, which 
is used in making ropes. Now that the United States is 
in control of the islands, it is probable that their mineral 
and other resources will be developed. 




Fig. 224. 

A native house in Manila. In order to be well 
above the damp ground, the people live in 
the upper part. Notice the bamboo fence. 



276 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE' 

On these islands dwell several different races. There 
are still many savages there, especially in the dense for- 
ests of the interior (Fig. 99). Some of them are called 
Negritos or little negroes. On the Sulu Islands are 
Mohammedans called Moros. The Tagalogs belong lo 
the more advanced tribes, who have learned the arts of 
civilization from the Spaniards. 

IV. Islands of the Pacific. — There are many hundreds 
of islands in the Pacific Ocean, some of them being tiny 
coral islands, others large and mountainous. They are 
all located where mountain ranges or volcanic peaks rise 
from the great plain of the ocean floor. 

Find the Fiji Islands. They are also British. What 
other group of small islands do you see in that region ? 
Find the Samoan . Islands. One of these belongs to the 
United States. What large island is just north of Aus- 
tralia ? In what zone does it lie ? One part is British, 
one part Dutch, and one part German. All of its prod- 
ucts are tropical, and it is covered with a dense forest 
and inhabited by fierce savages. Very few Europeans 
live there. 

Among the islands of the Pacific we must not forget to 
mention the Hawaiian Islands, for they now form a 
part of our own country. They are situated in the mid- 
Pacific on the way from San Francisco to Australia, and 
consist of a number of islands, the largest being Hawaii. 
All of them are volcanic, and on Hawaii are two of the 
largest volcanoes in the world (Fig. 101). Being in the 
torrid zone, their climate is warm enough for sugar raising, 
and this is one of the principal industries of the islands. 
Where else have we found this industry ? Honolulu is 
the capital and largest city. 



AUSTRALIA 277 



REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

I. Australia. Questions. — (1) To what country does Australia 
belong ? (2) How does it compare in size with the United States ? 

(3) How does the mountain range on the east affect the climate ? 

(4) Which, then, is the most valuable part of the country? (5) Tell 
about the native plants and animals. (6) What animals and plants 
have been imported ? (7) What industries have resulted ? (8) Name 
.the principal exports. (9) Locate the chief cities. 

Suggestions. — (10) Sketch Australia, putting in the Murray 
River and the principal cities. (11) What other places in the world 
are noted for sheep and cattle raising? (12) For gold mining? 
(13) Read about the great trouble the imported rabbits have caused 
in Australia. (14) Where are the desert countries of the world? 
Make a sketch map to show them. 

II. East Indies. Questions. — (15) Name several of the larger 
islands of the East Indies. (16) What are the products? 

Suggestions. — (17) Why were they named the East Indies? 
(18) Find what spices are used in cooking at your home. (19) Make 
a collection of spices, trying to find where each kind came from. 
(20) See on the map (Fig. 221) to what European countries each of 
the larger islands belongs. (21) Find where the tea and coffee used 
at your home came from. By what route are they probably brought? 

III. Philippine Islands. Questions. — (22) Where are the Philip- 
pine Islands? (23) Name the principal city. (24) What has re- 
cently made it famous? (25) What are the names of the largest 
islands ? (26) How far is Manila from China ? (27) What races 
occupy these islands ? 

Suggestions. — (28) Collect some Manila hemp rope. (29) Find 
out about the battle of Manila Bay and also about the war with the 
Filipinos. (30) Collect pictures from the Philippines. 

IV. Islands of the Pacific. Questions. — (31) Find Tasmania; 
New Zealand ; the Fiji Islands. (32) What large island lies north 
of Australia? Tell about it. (33) Tell about the Hawaiian Islands. 

Suggestions. — (34) Find out something about the Fiji Islands. 
(35) How are the Hawaiian Islands governed? (36) Find out some 
events that have happened on the Samoan Islands. 

For References, see page 332. 




Fig. 225. 



CALIFORNIA 



"THE LAND OF SUNSHINE 
FRUIT AND FLOWERS" 




Fig. 226. 
The State Capitol aud Grounds, Sacramento. 



A SUPPLEMENT 

BY 

JAMES A. BARR and EDWARD HUGHES 

REVISED BY 

THE STATE TEXT-BOOK COMMITTEE 
1910 



MAP QUESTIONS 

Refer to the maps and (1) Compare the size of California with that 
of Texas ; New York ; Massachusetts. (2) Find points on the Atlan- 
tic coast that have the same latitude as the northern and southern 
boundaries of California. (3) What states are included between these 
points? (4) Give the boundaries of California. (5) What moun- 
tains in the eastern part ? (6) In what direction do they extend ? 
(7) Find Mt. Whitney. (8) What direction is it from San Francisco? 
(9) What ranges in the western part ? (10) Compare their direction 
with that of the coast. (11) What is the highest mountain peak in 
the northern part of the state ? (12) What great lowland region 
between the Sierra Nevada aud Coast Range Mountains ? (13) What 
river drains its northern part? (14) Describe it. (15) What river 
drains the southern part ? (16) Describe it. (17) What river on 
the southeastern boundary of the state? (18) Describe the Klamath 
River ; the Eel ; the Russian. (19) In what direction are these rivers 
from San Francisco Bay ? (20) Describe the Salinas River; the Santa 
Maria; the Santa Clara. (21) What direction are these from San 
Francisco Bay? (22) Where is San Diego Bay? Monterey Bay? 
(23) Find a harbor in the northern part of the state. (24) What is 
the entrance to San Francisco Bay called? (25) Locate Lake Tahoe; 
Clear Lake ; Honey Lake ; Goose Lake ; Salton Sea. (26) Give loca- 
tion of the following cities : San Francisco, Los Angeles, Oakland, 
Sacramento, San Jose, San Diego, Stockton, Alameda, Berkeley, 
Fresno, Santa Barbara. (27) Locate three principal cities of the 
northern coast region. (28) Locate six important cities of the 
southern coast region. (29) Locate four cities in the San Joaquin 
Valley ; four in the Sacramento Valley. (30) Name the leading com- 
mercial cities of California. Why commercial ? (31) Name some of 
the natural resources of the state. Where found? 



282 



\\ LanJ 
P\Surrace 



RELIEF MAP OF 

CALIFORNIA 

By N. F. DRAKE 

Department of Geology, 

Stanford University 

Issued by the 
CALIFORNIA STATE MINIX6 BUREAU 

LEWIS E. AUBURV 
State Mineralogist 



Area of California, 153,650 sifcJnlks 

Area of 10 other States, 153,130 »j mllea 




Fig. 229. 




Fig- 230. 



XXII. CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 



Extent. — In size California ranks second among the 
states of the Union (Fig. 229). Its greatest length is 
about 775 miles ; its average width, about 200 miles. 

Relief. — California contains the lowest, and, with the 
exception of Alaska, the highest lands in the United 
States, ranging from 
depressions 263 feet 
below the sea level 
(Fig. 233) in the ex- 
treme southern part, 
to mountain peaks 
nearly 15,000 feet in 
height (Fig. 19). The 
great interior valley is 
the most extensive low- 
land region in the state. 
This fertile valley is 
about 400 miles long, 
with an average width FlG A 

of 40 miles. Except Not a " Bad man from Bodie " but a young 
for a narrow break at snow-shoer, two years old, of the high 
„ „ Sierras near Bodie, Mouo County. 

San 1 rancisco .Bay 

(Fig. 230), it is completely inclosed by the Sierra Nevada 
Mountains on the east and the Coast Ranges on the west. 
The northern part of this great plain is known as the 
Sacramento Valley, while the southern part is called the 
San Joaquin Valley. 

285 




286 



CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 



There are many smaller valleys ill both the Sierra 
Nevada and Coast ranges and in the southern part of the 
state. Among the most important are the Russian River, 

Napa, Santa 
Clara, and Sa- 
linas valleys and 
the plain of Los 
Angeles. On 
the western 
slope of the 
Sierras is the 
famous Yosem- 
ite Valley 
(Fig. 234). 

The coast line 
is more than a 
thousand miles 
long, with few 
good harbors. 
However, San 
Francisco Bay 
(Fig. 230) is one 
of the largest 
and best har- 
bors in the 
world. San 
Diego Bay (Fig. 
261) in the south and Humboldt Bay on the north coast 
are also excellent harbors. The scenic features of the 
state, whether of the coast and islands or of the mountains, 
are unsurpassed and are visited by tourists from all over 
the world. 




Fig. 231. ■ 
Armstrong Grove of Redwoods, Sonoma County. 



DRAINAGE 



287 



Drainage. — The most important rivers of the state are 
the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, which drain the 
great interior valley. Both rise in the Sierra Nevada 
Mountains. The San Joaquin, flowing from the south, 
is about 350 miles long, while the Sacramento, from the 




Fig. 232. 
At the base of Mt. Whitney, California. 

north, is about 400 miles in length. The two rivers 
unite about 60 miles northeast of San Francisco and flow 
into San Francisco Bay through the strait of Carquinez 
(Fig. 230). Both rivers have many important tributaries 
from the Sierras. The western slope of the coast region 
drains directly into the Pacific by numerous smaller rivers, 
among which are the Russian and Eel, north of San Fran- 
cisco Bay, and the Salinas, Santa Clara and Santa Maria, 



288 



CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 



south of it. The Klamath in the extreme north breaks 
through the Coast Range on its way to the sea. In the 
southern part of the state the streams are small. 

The Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers are navigable 
(Fig. 236). Most of the streams of the state are of 
great importance in furnishing water for irrigation (Fig. 

239), for mining, 
and as sources of 
electric power. 
The principal 
lake region is in 
the northeastern 
part. Lake 
Tahoe (p. 66), 
on the border 
line between 
California and 
Nevada, is a 
noted resort. 

Clim ate.— 
California has 
every kind of climate to be found in North America. In 
the desert regions the summers are extremely hot, while 
above the snow limit on the mountains the climate re- 
sembles that of arctic countries (Fig. A, p. 285). At 
ordinary altitudes, however, the state enjoys a mild cli- 
mate without great summer heat or winter cold. The 
principal reason for this is the fact that it is a coast state 
in a region of prevailing westerly winds. 

The temperature of the waters of the Pacific is nearly 
the same summer and winter, and the winds that cross 
the state from this great ocean equalize temperatures for 




Fig. 233. 

Plowing salt near Salton in the Colorado Desert, 2G3 

feet below the level. 



CLIMATE 



289 



Jaotli seasons (Fig. 238). For the reasons given, there 
are no marked seasonal changes except in the mountains. 
The year naturally divides itself into two parts : a season 
of rainfall corresponding to winter ; and the summer 
season, in which there is no rainfall except local thunder- 
storms in the high mountains. 




Fig. 234. 
A. view from the Yosemite Valley. 

The storms which bring rain to California form in the 
north Pacific and drift easterly over the state or over the 
states immediately to the north. Storms that are central 
as far north as Puget Sound produce abundant rainfall 
over a large part of California. As the moist winds from 
the ocean rise to pass over the Coast Ranges much of 
their moisture is condensed and falls as rain. Naturally 



290 



CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 



this region, especially north of San Francisco Bay, is one. 
of heavy rainfall. At San Francisco the yearly average 
is 23 inches, and at Eureka 46 inches, while at places near 




Fig. 235. 
Irrigating a California orange grove. 
The head ditch or flume lies along the higher side of the orchard. It is made 
of cement and lets out the water into the furrows through holes as large 
as broomsticks. 
The water should run about forty-eight hours continuously. During the hot 
weather a grove is irrigated about once a month,in the winter time not at alb 

Eureka, but at greater altitudes, 80 to 100 inches are not 
unusual. 

South of San Francisco the rainfall is much less, rang- 
ing as low as 10 inches at San Diego. In the great 



INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 



291 



interior valley, the rainfall also increases from south to 
north. At Visalia, in the southern part, the annual aver- 
age is 10 inches, at Sacramento 19 inches, and at Red 
Bluff 25 inches. On the western slope of the Sierras and 




Fig. 236. 

Passenger and freight steamer on the San Joaquin River, plying between 

Stockton and San Francisco. 

at their summit, the rainfall is about equal to that of the 
northern coast counties. Much of the precipitation here 
is in the form of snow, which remains on the ground, 
slowly melting until late in the summer, keeping the 
streams and irrigating ditches well filled. 

Industrial Development. — During the time of Spanish 
occupation, owing to distance from markets and lack of 



292 



CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 



means of transportation, little was done to develop agri- 
culture. Cattle were raised, driven to the seaboard, and 
slaughtered for their hides, horns, and tallow, the only 



Orange orchard 
of Riverside 




Orange orchard 
of Sacramento 
County, six hun- 
dred miles far- 
ther north. 



Fig. 237. 
Orange Groves. 

products that could be shipped long distances in slow sail- 
ing vessels. The grape, the olive, the fig, and other fruits 
were planted about the Missions, and enough grain and 
fruit were grown to supply the needs of the padres and 
their followers; but the work of agriculture went no 
further. 



INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 



293 



The discovery of gold and the rapid increase of popu- 
lation that followed, brought new needs and American 
energy to supply them. Provisions of all kinds reached 
high prices. Some of those who came West to make their 
fortunes soon saw that farming and the plying of trades 



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Fig. 238. 
Under the Oaks at Monterey in mid-winter. 

to meet local demands would be quite as profitable as 
mining. The soil, which had at first been considered 
almost worthless, was found to be enormously productive, 
and where water could be supplied, suited to almost every 
form of agriculture. 

Labor-saving machinery for use in mining, in farming, 
in fruit raising was introduced. Railroads were built 



294: CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 

connecting the state with the older states on the Atlantic 
Coast and in the Mississippi Valley. With the increase 
of exports steamship lines were extended. As the demand 
for California fruits, wines, produce, and grains increased, 
more and more people came to the state to make their 
homes. With the increase in population, an excellent 
public school system was established (Figs. 240, 266). In all 




Fig. 239. 
La Grange Dam, source of supply of the Modesto-Turlock Irrigation Districts. 

ways, California is now one of the most prosperous states 
in the Union. 

Agriculture. — Formerly, in California, agriculture meant 
grain farming almost exclusively. In the great interior 
valley, wheat was the principal crop because it could be 
grown without irrigation and shipped by sailing vessels 
to foreign markets at small cost. It is still one of the 
most important crops ; but the building of extensive irri- 
gation systems, the cutting up of the great land grants 
into smaller farms, and the rapid improvement in the 
means of transportation, have led. to the introduction of 
many more profitable kinds of farming. All cereals, ex- 
cept rice, are grown in the great valley and the bordering 



AGRICULTURE 



295 




Grammar School, Modesto. 




High School, San Diego. 

Fig. 240. 
Typical school buildings. 



296 



CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 




foothills. The annual value of the wheat, hay, and barley 
crops of the state is more than $50,000,000, — more than 

three times the 
value of the 
annual output 
of its gold 
mines. A trip 
through the 
grain region at 
any time is full 
of interest. In 
the plowing 



season, one sees 
huge traction 
engines drag- 
ging long lines 
of gang-plows, 
turning up the 
rich soil (Fig. 
241), where six 
months later 
will wave the 
ripening grain. 
Then the same 
engines may be 
seen drawing 

the combined harvesters, which cut, thresh, and sack the 
grain, ready for delivery at the warehouses. 

In the rich reclaimed lands in the delta region of the 
San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers, along the shores of 




Fig. 241. 

From seedtime to harvest in the grain region of the 

great valley. 



FRUIT RAISING 



297 



San Francisco Bay, and in the productive irrigated region 
near Los Angeles, truck farming and gardening are im- 
portant industries. In these parts of the state may be 
seen thousands of acres of potatoes, beans, and asparagus, 
fields of onions, celery (Fig. 242), and other miscellaneous 



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Fig. 242. 
Growing celery; Orange County. 



vegetable crops, which not only supply the near-by cities, 
but are shipped in large quantities to eastern markets. 

The state excels in the production of sugar beets 
(Fig. 251). Among other important farm crops are oats, 
hops, alfalfa, rye, corn, and garden and flower seeds. 
Flax, hemp, broom-corn, chicory, and peanuts are among 
the minor crops. 

Fruit Raising. — Fruit raising in California began to 
grow in importance after the completion of the first over- 



298 



CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 



land railroad in 1869. The invention and improvement 
of the refrigerator car, by which fresh fruits can be sent 
in perfect condition to such distant cities as New York 
and Boston, have opened the markets of the Eastern states 
to California fresh fruits. The fruits, fruit products, and 
vegetables exported from the state increased from 100 car 




Fig. 243. 
One man plowing with " gang" plow and fourteen-horse team. 

loads in 1871 to nearly 85,000 car loads in 1901. Year 
by year, irrigation is increasing the area devoted to fruit 
raising. 

California is now the leading state in the production 
of fruit. It produces 1 nine tenths of the oranges (Figs. 
237, 245), four fifths of the figs, more than half of the 
peaches, prunes (Fig. 265), plums, and grapes, and practi- 
cally all the olives, lemons, apricots, raisins, English wal- 
nuts, and almonds grown in the United States. Fruits 

1 Census of 1900. 



STOCK RAISING 



301 



succeed at all altitudes, from the sea level up to 4000 or 
5000 feet. Such semitropical fruits as the orange and the 
fig are grown in the warm belt on the eastern side of the 
great valley as far north as Redding, — 600 miles north of 
Los Angeles, the center of the orange industry. The variety 




Fig. 246. 

Vacation at home on the farm. Write a composition on what this picture 

reveals to you of home and farm life. 

and quality of small fruits are unexcelled. Strawberries 
may be had in the city markets eleven months in the year. 
Stock Raising. — Recent years have witnessed many 
important changes in the methods and results of breeding 
and rearing domestic animals. Formerly the state con- 
tained vast areas of uninclosed range lands, and the meth- 
ods still followed in many of the Western states were the 
methods of California. The results were a great num- 
ber of half-wild animals, hardy, and able to take care of 



302 



CALIFOENIA SUPPLEMENT 



. 


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Fig. 247. 
A chicken ranch. Describe all you see in this picture. 

themselves during favorable seasons, but suffering almost 
to the extinction of entire herds in times' of drought and 
during heavy snowstorms in the mountains. When ready 




Fig. 248. 

Creamery, Merced. 

Tell the story of butter-making. 



STOCK RAISING 



303 



for the market such animals in favorable seasons were 
worth only half what stock carefully bred and cared for 
should bring. 

The extending of irrigation on a large scale in many 
parts of the state has resulted in bringing much of the 
former cattle-range land under cultivation. Stock raising 




Fig. 249. 
A dairy ranch. Milking the cows out of doors in a corral. 



is now becoming more and more a part of real farm work, 
as it is in the Eastern states. Enterprising stockmen 
are at work improving their herds by the importation of 
blooded animals from the older states and from Europe, 
with the result o£ greatly, increasing the value of the 
stock products. 

Cattle raising is the most important division of the 
stock industry. In 1899 there were in California nearly 
1,500,000 head of cattle, including dairy herds. The 
greater number of these are raised on the larger ranges, 



304 



CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 



being driven into the mountains in summer and pastured 
on the pasture-lands and stubble-fields of the lowlands dur- 
ing winter. Smaller herds are found on most of the farms 
of the state. Dairying (Fig. 249) is an important and 









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Fig. 250. 
View in the Los Angeles Oil District. Oil is a cheap and convenient fuel, 
and its discovery in large quantities has been of the greatest importance 
in manufacturing. 

growing industry. This is especially true near the larger 
cities, in the plateau counties of the northeastern part of 
the state, and throughout the coast region. 

The breeding of fine horses and mules (p. 224) is another 
important branch of the animal industry, and California 
thoroughbreds now command good prices in eastern mar- 



MANUFA CTUIUNG 



305 



kets. More than 2,500,000 sheep share, with the other 
animals mentioned, the pasturage of the state, produc- 
ing annually, besides other valuable products, more than 
13,000,000 pounds of wool. Swine in large numbers are 
raised in many parts of the state. Poultry and poultry 




Fig. 251. 
Sugar factory at Oxuard. 

products are rapidly increasing in importance (Fig. 247). 
Ostriches are raised for their feathers on the celebrated 
ostrich- farms near Los Angeles and at San Jose and 
Sacramento. 

Manufacturing. — Although California is principally an 
agricultural state, manufactures are of growing impor- 
tance. The state produces a great amount of raw mate- 
rials of many kinds, and is well supplied with steam and 
electric railroads and steamship lines for shipping prod- 
ucts. The position of the state on the west coast of the 



806 



CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 



United States gives control of much of the growing trade 
with countries bordering on the Pacific Ocean. Manufac- 
turing in California has been kept back for many years 
because of the high price of fuel used for running 
machinery. 





y irfP"*?* 




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"*^"~:— • __ 4%\-- : ; 



Fig. 252. 
Standard oil refinery — Point Richmond. 



This need for cheap fuel has been met during the last 
few years, however, by the finding of great quantities of 
petroleum, which is even better than coal for many uses. 
Natural gas has also been found in considerable quanti- 
ties, and the use of electricity has further helped to solve 
the question of cheap power. Now electricity can be 
cheaply generated by water power in the mountains. By 



M A N UFA CTURING 



307 



means of wires it is taken to cities a hundred miles or more 
away to run street cars, light the streets and houses, and 
furnish power for manufacturing. One of the longest 
electric power lines in the world runs from Colgate in 
the Sierras to San Francisco, a distance of 212 miles. 




Fig. 253. 

Miners ready to go down into a deep mine. Tesla mine near Stockton. 
Notice each miner has a candle in his hand. 

Among the more important manufactures which de- 
pend upon agriculture are flour, canned and dried fruits 
and vegetables, wines and raisins from grapes, malt 
liquors from barley, dairy products such as butter, 
cheese, and condensed milk, refined sugar, and agri- 



308 



CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 



cultural implements. In addition to these the man- 
ufacture of lumber, ships, boats, and barges, mining 
machinery, railway and street cars, explosives, furniture, 
clothing, woolen goods, leather, and glassware is impor- 





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Fjg. 254. 

Miners at work in a gold mine hundreds of feet below the surface. Describe 

what you see in this picture. 



taut. Large manufacturing interests are generally found 
in the larger cities and towns, especially those that have 
cheap power and good railroad or water connections. 

Mining. — The discovery of gold in 1848 first drew the 
attention of the world to California. The gravel along 
the streams of the gold-producing sections has practi- 
cally all been turned over in search of the precious metal. 



MINING 



309 



When the supply from this source began to fail, quartz 
mining began, and it is still one of the most important 
industries. Gold is found in most parts of the state, but 
the most important gold deposits are in the Sierra region 
and in the northern Coast Range. Silver is found in the 




Fig. 255. 
Gold dredger, on the American River, near Folsom. 



eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, in the Shasta 
region, and in the southern part of the state. 

Copper mining is very important. The most valuable 
copper mines are in the Shasta country. Quicksilver is 
found throughout the Coast Ranges. Other important 
minerals are coal, soda, asphaltum, salt, pottery clays, and 
borax. Of special importance is petroleum, found in 



810 



CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 



great quantities in the southern part of the San Joaquin 
Valley and in the southern part of the state. Building 
stone, including granite, sandstone, limestone, onyx, and 
marble, is quarried in many places. 

Lumbering. — In the regions of heavy rainfall in the 
Coast Ranges and in the Sierras are some of the grandest 




Fig. 25G. 
Lumber scene. 

forests of cone-bearing trees in the world. The largest of 
these are the giant sequoias, found on the western slopes 
of the Sierras. Some of these measure more than 30 feet 
in diameter and 325 feet in height. John Muir estimates 
the age of some of the largest of these trees at 5000 years. 
The redwood found in the coast region, from near the 



FISHERIES 



311 



Oregon line south to Santa Cruz, is another sequoia of 
wonderful size and beauty and is the most important lum- 
ber tree of the state. Besides these the yellow pine, 
sugar-pine, silver fir, Douglas spruce, and incense cedar 
are valuable lumber trees. The sawmills are usually 
located in the high mountains. The lumber is floated 
down to the railroad or coast in long flumes or hauled by 
teams or traction engines. 




Fig 257. 
Hauling logs from the forest to the sawmill, Humboldt County. 



Fisheries. — The number and variety of fine food fishes 
found in California are almost without limit. With the 
present population of the state the supply far exceeds the 
demand. The more important salt-water fishes include 
the salmon, halibut, cod, rock-cod, sea-bass, tuna, yellow- 
tail, flounder, smelt, tomcod, herring, and many others. 
The native fishes taken in fresh waters are the salmon, 
steelhead, and several varieties of trout. Many valuable 
food fishes have been transplanted from eastern waters. 
Among these are the striped bass, shad, black bass, and 
two kinds of catfish. 



312 



CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 



The shellfish of importance are the native oyster, 
abalone, mussel, and clams of several varieties. Eastern 
oysters are planted in San Francisco Bay and do well. 
Crabs of several species, the shrimp, and a large lobster- 
like crawfish are also found in the waters of the ocean and 





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!■■- ^_-:2^ 


" -^ki 





Fig. 258. 
Shipping sceue, Brooklyn Basin, Oakland Harbor. 



bays. San Francisco is the leading whaling port of the 
world. 

Commerce. — The extensive commerce of the state de- 
pends upon its railroads, steamship lines (Fig. 225), and 
navigable inland waters, and the very great number and 
importance of its products. Through railroads it is con- 
nected with the eastern United States, to which it ships 
large quantities of fresh, dried, and canned fruits, wine, 
vegetables, nuts, sugar, and wool, and from which it re- 
ceives many manufactures. The steamship lines connect 
it with the Hawaiian Islands, Japan, China, the Philip- 
pines, Australia, New Zealand, and Pacific ports from 



CITIES 



313 



Alaska to Chile. Throughout the year steamers ply the 
San Joaquin River between San Francisco and Stockton ; 
the Sacramento between San Francisco and the capital 
city of the state. The leading foreign exports are wheat, 




Fig. 259. 
Ferry Building, San Francisco, from the bay, showing ferryboats. 



flour, fruits, and wine. The chief imports are tea, coffee, 
sugar, rice, coal, and manufactured articles. 

Cities. — San Francisco is the largest city and prin- 
cipal seaport of the Pacific coast. It is situated on a 
peninsula south of the Golden Gate, and its hilltops over- 
look the busy harbor. It is the key to the foreign com- 
merce not only of California, but to much of that of the 
Eastern states as well. Its manufactures are of great 
and growing importance. Its shipyards rank with those 
of the Atlantic seaboard. Some of the great battleships 
and cruisers of the United States navy were built here. 
Among its important manufactures are mining machin- 



314 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 

ery, flour, refined sugar, malt liquors, leather, canned and 
preserved fruits, soap and candles, boots, shoes, and cloth- 
ing. Among its points of interest are the United States 
Mint, the Presidio and other military posts, the State Min- 
ing Bureau, Hopkins Art Gallery, the Museum of the 
Academy of Sciences, and the Park Museum. Golden 
Gate Park (p. 66) has an area of nearly two square miles, 
and contains a very large collection of trees and other 
plants from all parts of the world. 

Los Angeles, the second city in size and importance, 
is the county seat of Los Angeles County, and the center 
of the great orange industry of the southern part of the 
state. Its fine climate and orange groves make it a favor- 
ite resort .for tourists during all seasons of the year. Al- 
though twenty-five miles from the coast, good railway 
(p. 97) connections make it an important port of entry. 
Other things that contribute to the growth and wealth 
of Los Angeles are its olives, deciduous fruits, and truck 
farm and vineyard products. Its manufacturing interests 
have increased since the discovery of petroleum (Fig. 250) 
in and near the city. 

Oakland (p. 118), the county seat of Alameda County, 
is closely connected with San Francisco by means of 
ferries and local trains (Fig. 259 and p. 98). Many 
people living in Oakland have their business in San 
Francisco, and great ferryboats run between the two 
cities at intervals of fifteen minutes for the greater part 
of the day. The city has a very pleasant climate, good 
schools, and other features which make it a favorite place 
of residence. Its commercial and manufacturing inter- 
ests are important. Oakland has grown rapidly in recent 
years. 



CITIES 315 

Sacramento is the capital of California and the county 
seat of Sacramento County. It is an important railroad 
center and is located on the navigable Sacramento River. 
It is the center of the early fruit district and a shipping 
point for grains, produce, and orchard fruits. Flour and 




Fig. 260. 
Curing prunes in the sun near San Jose, in the Santa Clara Valley. 

agricultural implements are important manufactures, and 
railway cars are built and repaired. The capitol is a 
building of great beauty and is surrounded by a large and 
beautiful park of about thirty-five acres. 

San Jose is the county seat of Santa Clara County, and 
the chief city of the rich Santa Clara Valley (Figs. 260-5). 



316 



CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 



It owes its importance to the immense fruit product of the 
surrounding region. Its natural beauty of surroundings 
and fine climate make it popular as a place of residence. 
The famous Lick Observatory is near by, on the summit of 
Mt. Hamilton, and can be plainly seen and easily reached 
from San Jose. The Leland Stanford Junior University 
is at Palo Alto, eighteen miles northwest. 




Fig. 261. 
San Diego Harbor. 

San Diego, in the extreme south, is located on San 
Diego Bay (Fig. 261), one of the best harbors on the 
coast. The city is important as a shipping point for! 
oranges, lemons, apples, and honey. Its particularly fine 
climate makes it a noted winter resort. 

Stockton is situated at the head of tide-water naviga- 
tion, on the San Joaquin River. Near the city are the 
rich reclaimed peat lands of the San Joaquin delta. It is 
the center of an important truck farming, grain, dairying, 
vineyard, and orchard region. By reason of its excellent 
railroad and water connections, it is an important shipping 
point. Its manufactures are important, including com- 



CITIES 



317 



bined harvesters, traction engines, dredging machinery, 
flour, window glass, coal briquettes, leather, and woolen 
goods. The Tesla mines of coal, clay, manganese, glass 
sand, and limestone in the Coast Range are connected with 
the city by rail. (Figs. 236, 241, 253.) 




Fig. 262. 
Harvesting the grape crop. 



Alameda is situated on the eastern side of San Fran- 
cisco Bay, and like Oakland has good ferry connections 
with San Francisco. It is chiefly a residence city for San 
Francisco business men. 

Berkeley, on the bay shore north of Oakland, is the 
seat of the University of California, and also of the State 



318 



CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 



Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind (p. 108) » It 
is an attractive residence town and has important manu- 
factures. 

Fresno, the county seat of Fresno County, in the south- 
central part of the San Joaquin Valley, is an important 




Fig. 263. 

Upper picture — University of California, Berkeley. 

Lower picture — Leland Stanford Jr. University. 

fruit center. It is especially noted for the quantity of 
fine raisins annually produced. (Fig. 262.) 

Other important and growing towns are Pasadena, a 
residence town and health resort in the southern orange 
belt]" Riverside, the county seat of Riverside County, 
where oranges were first grown in considerable quantities.; 



CITIES— REVIEW QUESTIONS 319 

Vallejo, in Solano County, with the United States Navy- 
yard and manufactures of importance ; Eureka, on Hum- 
boldt Bay, the outlet of the northern redwood belt ; Santa 
Rosa, Sonoma County, the principal- city of the Russian 
River region ; Santa Barbara, a famous coast resort, the 
county seat of Santa Barbara County ; San Bernardino, 
noted for its artesian wells, vineyards, and orange groves ; 
Santa Cruz, at the entrance of Monterey Bay, a summer 
resort. 

Review Questions. — (1) Is California principally lowland or 
mountainous? (2) Where are the principal mountains ? (3) Name 
and locate the principal lowland regions. (4) What is said of the 
different kinds of climate in California? (5) Is rainfall heavier in 
the northern or southern portion? (6) Is it heavier in the lowlands 
or mountains? Why? (7) What kind of climate is required for 
oranges, figs, and olives? (8) Name the navigable rivers of the 
state. (9) Why are smaller streams important? (10) What are 
the chief industries of the state? (11) Name the principal field crop. 
(12) Name other important field crops. (13) Name the principal 
fruit crops. (14) Tell about stock raising. (15) What has prevented 
extensive manufacturing in California? (16) What recent discov- 
eries have helped manufacturing? (17) Name the principal manu- 
factures that depend upon agriculture. (18) What is the most 
important mineral product of the state? (19) Name other im- 
portant mineral products. (20) In what regions is each found? 
(21) Where are the forest regions of the state ? (22) Where is the 
redwood found? The giant sequoia? (23) What are other impor- 
tant lumber trees? (24) Tell about the fisheries of California. 
(25) Which of the fishes mentioned have you seen? (26)- What 
are some of the things that help commerce ? (27) Name important 
exports of California; imports. (28) Name, in order of size, the 
ten largest cities of California. (29) For what is each noted? 

General Questions. — (1) Where does the water of California 
rivers come from? (2) What keeps water in the largest streams in 
dry seasons ? (3) From where did the deep rich soil of the lowlands 
come? (4) How was it brought? (5) Can you think of a reason 



320 



CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 



why the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers are nearer to the Coast 
Range than to the Sierra Nevada Mountains? (6) Why are there 
few bays on the coast? (7) Give reasons why San Francisco 
became the most important city. (8) How are fresh fruits shipped 
to Eastern states ? (9) Why are there no great forests in the lowland 
region of the state? (10) How is water power in the mountains 
made useful in the valley and coast regions ? 

Suggestions. — Discuss with classes the importance of irrigation. 
How does it increase the number, size, and variety of crops ? 

Irrigation from streams ; from artesian wells ; from deep wells by 
engines or windmills ; through flood gates in levees. Discuss also the 
native plants and animals, especially those of local interest and those 
which are noted outside of the state. Read and discuss selections from 
John Muir's "Mountains of California" and " Our National Parks " 
on such subjects as the Yosemite, giant sequoias, redwoods, mountain 
storms, deer, bear, Douglas squirrel, etc. Make a study with children 
of some of the wild flowers and trees and shrubs of the immediate 
neighborhood of the school. 




Fig. 264. 
Interior of Sutter's Fort, Sacramento. 



CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT APPENDIX 



AREA AND POPULATION 

Area, 158,360 square miles. Population (1900), 1,485,053. 

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 

(California State Board of Trade Report, 1909) 

Orchard Products : — 

Fresh deciduous fruits $12,306,400 

Citrus fruits 23,545,400 

Dried fruits other than prunes and raisins . . 11,973,060 

Prunes 2,500,000 

Cannedifruits . 15,624,387 

Olives and olive oil . . . .... . 1,850,000 

Nuts 2,360,000 

Vineyard products : — 

Table grapes 3,816,000 

Raisins . . . . . . . . . 3,600,000 

Wine 15,687,500 

Brandy 1,750,000 

Farm products : — 

Barley . 26,841,394 

Wheat . . . . . . . 18.894,961 

Oats . . . . . . . . . 6,527,140 

Corn 1,146,449 

Rye and other grain 448,180 

Other field crops : — 

Beet sugar 7,460,975 

Potatoes, Irish and sweet . . . . . . 5,779,145 

Beans 6,493,650 

Onions 980,000 

Hops . . . 1,052,280 

Seeds, Melons, etc 1,600,000 

Other products : — 

Vegetables, fresh and canned . . . . . 8,257,912 

Butter, cheese, etc 25,224,150 

Poultry and eggs 12,559,738 

Pish and game . 5,500,000 

• Porest products ' 23,775,027 

Petroleum 28,980,454 

Gold 16,727,928 

Copper 6,341,387 

Cement and others . . . . . . . 15,844,691 

Farm animals and products, wool, hides, etc. . . 30,762,150 

... . $346,210,358 

321 



Grand total 





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INDEX TO CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 



Almonds, 298. 

Agriculture, 294-297. 

Alameda, 317. 

Alaska, 313. 

Alfalfa, 297. 

American River, 309, Fig. 255. 

Apricots, 298. 

Area, 285. 

Asparagus, 297. 

Asphaltum, 309. 

Atlantic Coast, 294. 

Australia, 312. 

Barley, 290, 307. 
Beans, 297. 
Beets, 297. 

Berkeley, 317, Fig. 203. 
Bodie, 2S5, Fig. A. 
Borax, 309. 
Boston, 298. 
Broom-corn, 297. 
Building materials, 310. 
Butter, 307. 

California— extent, 285 ; relief, 
285 ; drainage. 287 ; climate, 
288 ; industrial development, 
291; agriculture. 294; fruit 
raising, 297 ; stock raising, 301 ; 
manufacturing, 305 ; mining. 
308 ; lumbering, 310 : fisheries, 
311 ; commerce, 312 ; cities, 313. 

Capitol, 279. Fig. 226. 

Carquinez, Strait of, 287. 

Cattle, 292. 

Cedar, 311. 

Celery. 297. Fig. 242. 

Cheese, 307. 

Chicken ranch, 302, Fig. 247. 

Chicory. 297. 

Chile, 313. 

China, 312. 

Cities, 313-319. 

Clays, pottery. 309. 

Climate, 288-291. 

Coal, 309, Fig. 253. 

Coast ranges, 285, 286, 288, 289, 
309, 310. 



Colgate, 307. 

Colorado Desert, 288, Fig. 233. 

Commerce, 312-313. 

Condensed milk, 307. 

Copper, 309. 

Corn, 297. 

Creamery, 302, Fig. 248. 

Dairying, 304, Fig. 249. 
Dairy products, 307. 
Douglas spruce, 311. 
Drainage, 287-288. 

Eel (river), 287. 
Electricity, 306. 
Elevation of surface, 285. 
English walnuts, 298. 
Eureka (rainfall), 290. 
Exports, 298, 312-313. 

Factories — ereamerv, 302, Fig. 

24S ; oil refinery, 306, Fig. 252 ; 

sawmill, 311, Fig. 257 ; sugar 

refinery, 305, Fig. 251. 
Farm animals, 301. 
Farm life, 301, Figs. 243, 246. 
Farm products, 297. 
Ferries, 313, Fig. 259; 317. 
Figs, 292, 298. 
Fir, 311. 

Fisheries, 311, 312. 
Flax. 297. 
Flour, 307. 

Folsom, 309, Fig. 255. 
Forests, 310. 
Forts, 320, Fig. 264. 
Fresno, 318. 
Fruit farm, 322, Figs. 235, 237, 

245, 260, 265. 
Fruit raising, 297. 
Fruits, 298. 307, 312. 
Fuels, 306. 

Gold, 293, 30S. 309, Fig. 255. 
Golden Gate, 313. 
Grains, 294, 296, Fig. 241. 
Granite, 310. 



323. 



324 



INDEX 



Grapes, 292, 298, 307, Fig. 2(52. 

Harbors, 286, 316, Fig. 261. 

Harvesting, 296, Fig. 241. 

Hawaiian Islands, 312. 

Hay, 296. 

Health resorts — San Diego, 316 ; 
Pasadena, 318 ; Santa Barbara, 
319; Santa Cruz, 319. 

Hemp, 297. 

Hopkins Art Gallery, 314. 

Hops, 297. 

Horses, 304. 

Humboldt Bay, 286. 

Imports, 313. 
Incense cedar, 311. 
'Indians, 350, Fig. 208. 
Industrial development, 291-294. 
Industrial education, 326, Fig. 266. 
Industries, 291. 
Institution for the Deaf. Dumb, 

and Blind, 318. 
Irrigation, 294, 297, 303. 

Japan, 312. 

Klamath (river), 288. 

La Grange Dam, 294, Fig. 239. 

Lake Tahoe, 288. ■ 

Leland Stanford Junior Univer- 
sity, 316, 318, Fig. 263. 

Lemons, 298. 

Lick Observatory, 316. 

Limestone, 310. 

Los Angeles, 286, 297, 301, Fig. 
250, 314. 

Lumbering, 310, 311, Figs. 250-7. 

Malt liquors, 307. 

Manufacturing, 305-308. 

Marble, 310. 

Merced, 302, Fig. 24S. 

Mineral products. 308-310. 

Mines — coal, clay, manganese, 

glass sand, limestone, 317. 
Mining, 308, Figs. 253-254. 
Mississippi Valley, 294. 



Modesto Grammar School, 295, 
Fig. 240. 

Modesto-Turlock Irrigation Dis- 
tricts, 294, Fig. 239. 

Mono County, 285, Fig. A. 

Monterey, 293, Fig. 238. 

Mountains, 2S5. Fig. 232. 

Mt. Hamilton, 316. 

Muir, John, 310. 

Museum of the Academy of 
Sciences, 314. 

Napa Valley, 286. 
Natural gas, 306. 
Nevada. 288. 
New York, 298. 
New Zealand, 312. 

Oakland, 314, 317, Fig. 258. 

Oak trees, 293, Fig. 238. 

Oats, 297. 

Oil, 304, Fig. 250 ; 306, Fig. 252. 

Olives, 292, 298. 

Onions. 297. 

Onyx, 310. 

Orange groves. 290, Fig. 235 ; 292, 

Fig. 237, 300. Fig. 245. 
Oranges, 298. 301. 
Ostriches, 305. 
Oxnard, 305, Fig. 251. 

Pacific Ocean, 287, 288, 289, 306. 

Palo Alto, 316. 

Park Museum, 314. 

Pasadena, 318. 

Peaches, 298. 

Peanuts, 297. 

Petroleum, 306, 309. 

Philippines, 312. 

Pine, 311. 

Pioneers. 332, Fig. 207. 

Plums, 298. 

Point Richmond, 306, Fig. 252. 

Potatoes, 297. 

Poultry, 305. Fig. 247. 

Products of the soil, 296-301. 

Prunes, 298, 315. Fig. 260; 

(orchard) 322, Fig. 265. 
Puget Sound, 289. 



INDEX 



325 



Quartz, 300. 
Quicksilver, 300. 

Railroads, 20S. Fig. 225. 

Rainfall, 2S0-201. 

Raisins, 208, 307, Fig. 202. 

Red Bluff (rainfall), 201. 

Redding, 301. 

Redlands, 300, Fig. 245. 

Redwood, 310. 

Redwoods (trees), 28G, Fig. 231; 

310. 
Refineries— oil, 304, Fig. 250; 

sugar, 305, Fig. 251; 306, Fig. 

252. 
Rice, 204. 

Richmond, 306, Fig. 252. 
Rivers, 286-28^. 
Riverside, 318, Fig. 237. 
Russian River, 286, 310. 
Rye, 207. 

Sacramento (city). 305, 315; 
(rainfall), 201; (river), 287, 

288, 313; (valley), 285, Fig. 

264. 
Salinas (river), 287; (valley), 
' 286. 

Salt, 300, Fig. 233. 
Salton, 288, Fig. 233. 
San Bernardino (mountains), 300, 

Fig. 245; (city), 310. 
San Diego (bay) , 286, 316 ; (city) , 
i 316; (harbor), 316, Fig. 261; 

(rainfall), 200; (school), 205. 

Figs. 240, 266. , ~ ■ J -. - . 

Sandstone, 310. 
San Francisco (bay), 286/287, 

200, 207, 312; (city), 287, 307, 

313; (port), 312; (rainfall), 

200, Fig. 250. 
San Joaquin (river), 287, 288, 

206, 313, 316; (valley), 285, 

310. 
San Jose, 305, 315, Figs. 260, 265. 
Santa Barbara, 310. 
Santa Clara (river), 287; (val- 
ley), 286, 315, Figs. 260, 265. 
Santa Cruz, 311, 310. 
Santa Maria (river), 287. 



Santa Rosa, 310. 

Sawmills, 311. 

Schools, 204, 205, Fig. 240; 
(special), 326, Fig. 266. 

Seeds, 207. 

Sequoias, 310, 311. 

Shasta, 300. 

Sheep, 305. 

Sierra Nevada Mountains, 285, 
286, 287, Fig. 232; 201, 307, 
300, 310. 

Silver, 300. 

Silver fir, 311. 

Soda, 300. 

Sonoma County, 286, Fig. 231. 

Spruce, 311. 

State institutions — capitol, Fig- 
226; Institution for Deaf, 
Dumb, and Blind, 318 ; Military, 
314 ; Mining Bureau, 314 ; State 
Normal School, 326, Fig. 26(5; 
University of California, 317, 
318, Fig. 263. 

Stock farm, 303. Fig. 240. 

Stock raising, 301-304. 

Stockton, 313, 316, Figs. 236, 253. 

Strawberries, 301. 

Sugar, 305, Fig. 251; 307. 

Sugar beets, 207. 

Sugar pine, 311. 

Swine, 305. , 

Tahoe, Lake, 288. 
Trees, 311. 

United States institutions— mint, 

314; navy yard, 310. 
University of California, 317, 31S, 

Fig. 263. 

Vallejo, 310. 

Valleys, 285, 286, 201, 204. 

Vegetables, 307. 

Visalia (rainfall), 201. 

Walnuts, English, 208. ' 

Wheat, 204, 206. 

Wines, 204, 307. 

Yellow pine, 311. 

Yosemite Valley, 280, Fig. 234. 




Home economics — Santa Barbara schools. Davis University farm. 




Cooking school — San Diego State Normal. 

Fig 266. 

Industrial Education. 



BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1 



McM. means The Macmillan Co., New York; Ginn, Ginn & Co., Boston, 
Mass. ; A. B. C, American Book Co., New York ; S. B. C, Silver, Burdett & 
Co., New York; Heath, D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Mass. ; E. P. C, Educa- 
tional Publishing Co., Boston, Mass. ; Scribner, Charles Scribner's Sons, New 
York. 



Methods, Aids, etc. 

. Geikie, "The Teaching of Geography" (McM., $0.60); King, 
"Methods and Aids in Geography" (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $1.20) ; 
Parker, " How to study Geography" (D. Appleton & Co., New York, 
$1.50) ; Nichols, " Topics in Geography " (Heath, $0.65) ; Trotter, 
" Lessons in the New Geography" (Heath, $1.00) ; McMurry, " Spe- 
cial Method in Geography " (Public School Publishing Co., Blooming- 
ton, 111., $0.50) ; McCormick, " Suggestions on Teaching Geography " 
(same publisher, $0.50); Frye, "The Child and Nature" (Ginn, 
$0.80) ; Frye, " Teacher's Manual of Methods in Geography " (Ginn, 
$0.50); Redway, "Manual of Geography" (Heath, $0.65); McCor- 
mick, " Practical Work in Geography" (A. Flanagan, Chicago, 111., 
$0.80). 

Journal of School Geography (R. E. Dodge, Teachers College, 
Columbia University, New York City, $1.00 per year) ; " The States- 
man's Year Book," published each year, gives latest statistics, etc. 
(McM, $3.00) ; Ritter, "Comparative Geography" (A. B. C, $1.00) ; 

1 These references are not intended to be exhaustive, but, rather, sug- 
gestive. Most, if not all, are to first-class sources. The attempt has been 
to make few references, assuming that the teacher will have others in mind. 
While there may seem to be many here, a careful examination will reveal the 
fact that really few books are referred to. Some of those mentioned at the 
end of Part I will be found useful for Part II also, 
v 327 



328 REFERENCES 

Shaler, " Nature and Man in America " (Scribner, $1.50) ; Guyot, 
" Earth and Man " (Scribner, $ 1.75) ; Chanrplin, " Cyclopedia of Com- 
mon Things " (H. Holt & Co., New York, $2.50) ; Champlin, " Cyclo- 
pedia of Persons and Places" (same publisher, $2.50) ; Murche, 
" Science Readers " (McM., I and II, $0.25 each, III and IV, $0.40, 
each, V and VI, $0.50 each) ; Lange, " Handbook of Nature Study " 
(McM., $1.00) ; Yonge, "Little Lucy's Wonderful Globe " (McM., 
$0.50); Strong, "All the Year Round" (Ginn, three volumes, $0.30 
each) ; Carpenter, " Geographical Readers " (A. B. C, Vol. II, Asia, 
$0.60; volume on North America, $0.60);" Guyot, "Geographical 
Reader" (A. B. C, $0.60); Chisholm, "Commercial Geography" 
(Longmans, Green & Co., New York, $1.00) ; Mill, "General Geogra- 
phy " (McM., $0.90) ; Lyde, " Man and His Markets " (McM., $0.50) ; 
Herbertson, " Man and His Work " (McM., $0.60) ; Pratt, " American 
History Stories " (E. P. C, four volumes, $0.36 each) ; Pratt, "Stories 
of Colonial Children " (E. P. C, $0.40) ; Shaler, " First Book in 
Geology ". (Heath, $9.60); Davis, "Physical Geography" (Ginn, 
$1.25) ; Tarr, " Elementary Physical Geography " (McM., $1.40). 

Section I. Form and Size of the Earth. — Andrews, "Seven Little 
Sisters," section on "The Ball Itself." (Ginn, $0.50) ; Irving, "Life 
and Voyages of Christopher Columbus " (G. P. Putnam's Sons, New 
York, $1.75) ; " Columbus," by Tennyson D'Anvers, " Science Lad- 
ders," Vol. I (E. P. C, $0.40) ; Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowl- 
edge," section on "The Great Globe Itself" (McM., $1.10); Ritter, 
"Comparative Geography," First Part (A. B. C, $1.00). 

Section II. Daily Motion of the Earth and its Results. — Redway, 
" Manual of Geography," Chapter VI (Heath, $0.65) ; " Daybreak " 
(poem), Longfellow. 

Section III. The Zones. — Eggleston, " Stories of American Life 
and Adventure," section on " Adventures in Alaska " (A. B. C, $0.50) ; 
Andrews, " Seven Little Sisters," sections on " The Little Brown Baby," 
"Agoonack, the Esquimau Sister," and "How Agoonack Lives" (Ginn, 
$0.50); Schwatka, "The Children of the Cold" (E. P. C, $1.25); 
Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters XXIX and XXX (Ginn, 
$1.00); King, "The Picturesque Geographical Readers," First Book, 
Part 2 (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.50). 

Section IV. Heat within the Earth and its Results. — Tarr, "First 
Book of Physical Geography," Chapters I (p. 8), XIX, and XX 



REFERENCES 329 

(McM., $1.10) ; Trotter, " Lessons in the New Geography," pp. 16-17 
(Heath, $1.00); Redway, "Manual of Geography," Chapter VII 
(Heath, -$0.65) ; Kingsley, " Madam How and Lady Why," section on 
" Volcanoes " (McM., $0.50) ; Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowl- 
edge," Chapter XI (McM., $1.10) ; Kelly, " Leaves from Nature's 
Story Book," Vol. Ill, " The Records of the Rocks " (E. P. C, $0.40). 

Section V. The Continents and Oceans. — Andrews, " Seven Little 
Sisters" (Ginn, $0.50); Ballou, "Footprints of Travel" (Ginn, 
$1.00); Gee, "Short Studies in Nature Knowledge," Chapter IV, 
"The Sea" (McM., $1.10); Kelly, "Leaves from Nature's Story 
Book," Vol. Ill, " A Visit to the Bottom of the Ocean " (E. P. C, 
$0.40) ; Shaler, " The Story of our Continent," section on " Coral 
Reefs " (Ginn, $0.75) ; Tarr, " Elementary Geology," p. 251 (McM., 
$1.40) ; D'Anvers, " Science Ladders," Vol. Ill, Lesson VIII (E. P. 
C, $0.40). Poems: Shelley, "A Vision of the Sea"; Longfellow, 
" The Secret of the Sea " ; Longfellow, " The Wreck of the Hespe- 
rus"; Holmes, " The Chambered Nautilus"; Byron, "The Ocean." 

Section VI. Maps. — For References, see bottom of page 117. 

Section VII. North America. — Shaler, "The Story of Our Conti- 
nent" (Ginn, $0.75) ; Lyde, "North America" (McM., $0.50) ; King, 
" The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shep- 
ard, Boston, $0.72). 

Section VIII. The United States. — Brooks, "Century Book for 
Young Americans" (The Century Co., New York, $1.50); Brooks, 
" The Story of the United States " (The Lothrop Publishing Co., 
Boston, $1.50) ; Channing, " Students' History of the United States " 
(McM., $1.40) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters I and XXV 
(Ginn, $1.00) ; Gannet, " The United States," Stanford's Com- 
pendium of Geography (Scribner, $4.50) ; King, " The Picturesque 
Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.72) ; 
"Our Country" (poem), Holmes. 

Section IX. New England. — Eggleston, " Stories of American Life 
and Adventure," " Stories of Whaling " and " A Whaling Song " (A. 
B. C, $0.50) ; Rocheleau, " Great American Industries," Book I, 
" Granite," " Marble," and " Slate " ; Book II, " Cotton Manufactur- 
ing" and " Lumbering " (A. Flanagan, Chicago, each $0.50); Chase 
and Clow, "Stories of Industry," Vol. I, "Lumbering," "Ship Build- 
ing," " Marble and Granite," " Slate and Brick " ; Vol. II, " Manufac- 



330 REFERENCES 

taring," " Fisheries," and " Whaling " (E. P. C, each $0.40) ; King, 
" The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Third and Fourth Books 
(Lee & Shepard, Boston, each $0.56) ; Wilson, " Nature Study in 
Elementary Schools," Second Reader, " The Tree," by Bjornson 
(McM., $0.35). Poems : Whittier, " Mogg Megone " ; " Peutucket " ; 
" The Bridal of Pennacook "; " The Merrimack " ; "The Norsemen"; 
Longfellow, " The Woods in Winter " ; " The Building of the Ship " ; 
" The River Charles " ; Emerson, " Boston." 

Section X. Middle Atlantic States. — Chase and Clow, " Stories of 
Industry," Vol. I and Vol. II, various stories on Iron, Coal, Mining, 
Manufacturing, Farming, etc. (E. P. C, each $0.40) ; Rochelean, 
" Great American Industries," Book I, sections on " Coal Mining," 
" Natural Gas," " Petroleum," and " Iron " (A. Flanagan, Chicago, 
$0.50) ; Eggleston, " Stories of American Life and Adventure," sec- 
tion on " A Story of Niagara " (A. B. C, $0.50) ; King, " The Pictur- 
esque Geographical Readers," Third and Fourth Books (Lee & 
Shepard, Boston, each $0.56). 

Section XI. The Southern States. — Rocheleau, " Great American 
Industries," Book II, section on " Cotton and Sugar" (A. Flanagan, 
Chicago, $0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," 
Fourth Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56). 

Section XII. The Central States. — Garland, " Boy Life on the 
Prairie" (McM., $1.50); McMurry, "Pioneer Stories of the Missis- 
sippi Valley " (Public School Publishing Co., Blooniington, 111., $0.50) ; 
Rocheleau, " Great American Industries," Book II, sections on " Grain 
Raising," "Wheat Raising," and "Milling" (A. Flanagan, Chicago, 
$0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Fourth Book 
(Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56). Poems: "When the Frost is on 
the Punkin," Riley; "Knee Deep in June," Riley; "The Prairies," 
Bryant ; " The Hunter of the Prairies," Bryant. 

Section XIII. The Western States. — Ballou, " Footprints of 
Travel," Chapter XXV (Ginn, $1.00) ; Eggleston, " Stories of Ameri- 
can Life and Adventure," sections on " How Fremont Crossed the 
Mountains," " The Finding of Gold in California," " Descending the 
Grand Canon," and several Indian stories (A. B. C, $0.50) ; Chase and 
Clow, " Stories of Industry," Vol. I, several sectious on " Mines and 
Mining " (E. P. C, $0.40) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical 
Readers/' Fifth Rook (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56) ; " The Pass of 



REFERENCES .331 

the Sierra " (poem), Whittier ; " tn the Yosemite Valley," Joaquin 
Miller. 

Section XIV. Alaska. — Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapter 
XXVI (Ginn, $1.00) ; Eggleston, " Stories of American Life and Ad- 
venture," " Adventures in Alaska " (A. B. C, $0.50). 

Section XV. Countries North of the United States. — Coe, " Our 
American Neighbors," Chapters I-XII (S. B. C, $0.60) ; Lyde, " A 
Geography of North America" (McM., $0.50); Dawson, "Canada 
and Newfoundland," Stanford's Compendium (Scribner, $0.50) ; An- 
drews, " Seven Little Sisters," the two sections on Agoonack (Ginn, 
$0.50); Schwatka, "The Children of the Cold" (E. P. C, $1.25); 
Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowledge " (McM., $1.10) ; King, 
" The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee andShep- 
ard, Boston, $0.72) ; " An Arctic Vision," Bret Harte; " Evangeline," 
Longfellow. 

Section XVI. Countries South of the United States. — Coe, "Our 
American Neighbors," Chapters XIII-XVII (S. B. C, $0.60) ; Conk- 
lin, " Guide to Mexico " (D. Appletou & Co., New York, $1.50) ; Lyde, 
"A Geography of North America" (McM., $0.50); Ballou, "Foot- 
prints of Travel," Chapters XXIII, XXIV, XXV, XXVII, and 
XXVIII (Ginn, $1.00); King, "The Picturesque Geographical 
Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.72). 

Section XVII. South America. — Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," 
Chapters XXIX-XXXI (Ginn, $1.00) ; Coe, "Our American Neigh- 
bors" (S. B. C, $0.60). 

Section XVIII. Europe. — Lyde, " A Geography of Europe " (McM., 
$0.50) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters X-XXII (Ginn, 
$1.00) ; Coe, "Northern Europe" (S. B. C.,$0.60) ; Pratt, "Northern 
Europe " (E. P. C, $0.40) ; Lyde, " A Geography of the British Isles" 
(McM., $0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Sixth 
Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.60) ; Pratt, " Stories of England " 
(E. P. C, $0.-40) ; Andrews, "Seven Little Sisters," "The Little 
Mountain Maiden," and "Louise" (Ginn, $0.50). Poems: Alice 
Carey, " The Leak in the Dike " ; Longfellow, " Venice " ; Joaquin 
Miller, " Sunrise in Venice " ; " In a Gondola." 

Section XIX. Asia. — Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters 
III, VIII, and IX (Ginn, $1.00) ; Andrews, " Seven Little Sisters," 
(' The Story of Pen-se," also " Gemila " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Smith, " Life 



332 



REFERENCES 



in Asia" (S. B. C, $0.60); Pratt, " Stories of India" (E. P. C, 
$0.40) ; Pratt, " Stories of China " (E. P. C, $0.40). Poems by 
Wbittier: "The Holy Land"; "Palestine"; "The Pipes of Luck- 
now." 

Section XX. Africa. — Lyde, " A Geography of Africa " (McM., 
$0.50) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters IX and X (Ginn, 
$1.00); Badlam, "Views in Africa" (S. B. C, $0.72); Andrews, 
" Seven Little Sisters," section on " The Little Dark Girl " and 
"Gemila" (Ginn, $0.59). 

Section XXI. Australia, etc. — Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," 
Chapters II, IV, VI, V, VII (Ginn, $1.00) ; Kellogg, " Australia and 
the Islands of the Sea" (S. B. C, $0.68) ; Pratt, " Stories of Aus- 
tralasia " (E. P. C, $0.40). Poem, " Western Australia," O'Reilly. 




Fig. 267. 
Pioneers on their way to California in " the days of old, the days of gold, the 

days of '49." 



APPENDIX 



CONTINENTS AND PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES 

Note. — The figures 1897, 1901, etc., refer to the year in which the 
estimate was made. Most of the figures are obtained from the "States- 
man's Year Book" for 1909, or from the " Century Atlas." 







Area in Square Miles 




Population 


North America . . . 8,614,658 


1906 


100,913,840 


United States (with Alaska) 3,624,122 


1900 


84,216,433 


Mexico . . . . . 767,005 


1900 


13,607,259 


Canada . 






3,745,570 


1906 


5,983,560 


Central America 






169,365 


1906 


11,659,770 


Cuba 






45,883 


1899 


1,722,953 


South America 






. 7,960,733 


1908 


46,879,001 


Brazil . 






3,218,130 


1908 


19,910,646 


Argentina 






1,135,840 


1908 


5,974,771 


Peru . 






697,640 


1908 


2,971,814 


Chile . . 






291,544 


1908 


5,000,000 


Europe 






3,233,916 


1907 


401,590,739 


Russia . 






1,862,524 


1906 


109,354,600 


German Empire 






208,730 


1905 


60,641,278 


v Austria-Hungary 






241,330 


1906 


45,405,307 


France . 






207,054 


1906 


39,252,245 


British Isles . 






121,390 


1901 


41,609,091 


Italy 






96,500 


1907 


33,640,000 


Spain . 






190,050 


1900 


18,618,086 


Turkey in Europe 




65,350 


1907 


6,130,200 


Asia (with East Indies) 




16,631,559 


1906 


886,427,255 


Chinese Empire . 




4,277,170 


1907 


438,214,000 


India . 






1,097,901 


1901 


232,072,832 


Japan . 






147,655 


1903 


46,732,138 


Turkey in Asia 






693,610 


1901 


17,683,500 


Siberia 






4,786,730 


1906 


6,740,600 


Africa . 






11,514,000 


1906 


127,000,000 


Kongo State . 






900,000 


1901 


30,000,000 


Egypt . 






400,000 


1901 


9,734,405 


Cape Colony 






276,909 


1907 


2,487,882 


Transvaal Colony 






117,730 


1906 


1,355,440 



333 



33± 



Australia 

New South Wales 
Victoria 
Queensland . 
South Australia . 
Tasmania 
Western Australia 



APPENDIX 






Area in Square Miles 




Population 


. 3,065,120 


1906 


4,479,840 


310,370 


1906 


1,533,000 


87,884 


1906 


1,238,000 


670,500 


1906 


535,100 


903,690 


1906 


383,830 


26,220 


1906 


180,160 


975,920 


1906 


261,750 



SIZE OF THE EARTH 

Length of the Earth's Diameter at equator 
(miles) . . . . ' 

Length of the Equator (milea) 

The Earth's Surface (square miles) 
Pacific Ocean (square miles) 
Atlantic Ocean (square miles) 
Antarctic Ocean and the great southern sea sur 

rounding the south pole (square miles) 
Indian Ocean (square miles) 
Arctic Ocean (square miles) . 
The sea (square miles) . 



7,926 

24,903 

196,971,984 

55,660,000 
33,720,000 

30,605,000 

16,720,000 

4,781,000 

141,486,000 



AREA AND POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 



Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California . 

Colorado 

Connecticut . 

Delaware 

District of Coluui 

Florida 

Georgia 

Gruam . 

Hawaiian 

Idaho . 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 



bia 



dauds 



Area in Square Miles 

52,250 

590,884 

113,020 

53,850 

158,360 

103,925 

4,990 

2,050 

70 

58,680 

59,475 

180 

6,449 

84,800 

56,650 

36,350 

56,025 

82,080 

4,400 

48,720 



Population, est., 1906 

2,017,877 

82,516 

143,745 

1,421,574 

1,648,049 

615,570 

1,005,716 

194,479 

307,716 

629,341 

2,443,719 

9,698 

192,407 

205,704 

5,418,670 

2,710,898 

2,205,690 

1,612,471 

2,320,298 

1,539,449 









APPENDIX 








335 


Area in Square Miles Population, est., 1906 


Maine ...... 33,040 . . . . 714,494 


Maryland 




12,210 








1,275,434 


Massachusetts 






8,315 








. 3,043,346 


Michigan 






58,915 








. 2,584,533 


Minnesota . 






83,365 








. 2,025,615 


Mississippi . 






46,810 








1,708,272 


Missouri 






69,415 








3,363,153 


Montana 






146,080 








303,575 


Nebraska 






77,510 








1,068,484 


Nevada 






110,700 








42,335 


New Hampshire 






9,305 








432,624 


New Jersey . ■ 






7,815 








2,196,237 


New Mexico 






122,580 








216,328 


New York . 






49,170 








8,226,990 


North. Carolina 






52,250 








2,059,326 


North Dakota 






70,795 








463,784 


Ohio . 






41,060 








4,448,677 


Oklahoma . 






39,030 








590,247 


Oregon 






96,030 








474,738 


Pennsylvania 






45,215 








6,928,515 


Philippine Island 






114,326 








7,912,243 


Porto Rico . 






3,550 








1,037,028 


Rhode Island 






1,250 








490,387 


South Carolina 






30,570 








1,453,818 


South Dakota 






77,650 








465,908 


Tennessee . 






42,050 








2,172,476 


Texas . . 






265,780 








3,536,618 


Tutuila 






55 








3,800 


Utah . 






84,970 








316,331 


Vermont 






9,565 








350,373 


Virginia 






42,450 








1,973,104 


Washington 






69,180 








614.625 


West Virginia 






24,780 








1,076,406 


Wisconsin . 






56,010 . 








2,260,930 


Wyoming . 






97,890 . 








103,673 



TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES OF THE UNITED 

STATES 

Note. — The great increase in size of New York is due to the joining 
of Brooklyn and other cities to it, making Greater New York. 



1. New York, N.Y. 

2. Chicago, 111. . 



Population, 
est., 1906 

4,113,043 

2,049,185 



Population, 
Census of 1900 

. 3,437,202 
. 1,698,575 



336 



APPENDIX 



3. Philadelphia, Pa 

4. St. Louis, Mo. 

5. Boston, Mass. 

6. Baltimore, Md. 

7. Cleveland, Ohio 

8. Buffalo, NY. 

9. San Francisco, Cal 

10. Pittsburg, Pa. 

11. Detroit, Mich. 

12. Cincinnati, Ohio 

13. Milwaukee, Wis. 

14. New Orleans, La. 

15. Washington, D.C. 

16. Newark, N.J. 

17. Minneapolis, Minn 

18. Jersey City, N.J. 

19. Louisville, Ky. 

20. Indianapolis, Ind 

21. St. Paul, Minn. 

22. Providence, R.I. 

23. Rochester, N.Y. 

24. Kansas City, Mo. 

25. Toledo, Ohio 



Population, 
est, 1906 

1,441,735 
649,320 
602,278 
553,669 
460,327 
381,819 
450,100 
375,082 
353,535 
345,230 
317,903 
314,146 
307,716 
289,634 
273,825 
237,952 
226,129 
219,154 
203,815 
203,243 
185,703 
182,376 
159,980 



Population, 
Census of 1900 

1,293,697 
575,238 
560,892 
508,957 
381,768 
352,387 
342,782 
321,616 
285,704 
325,902 
285,315 
287,104 
278,718 
246,070 
202,718 
206,433 
204,731 
169,164 
163,065 
175,597 
162,608 
163,752 
131,822 



CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES AND ITS DEPEND- 
ENCIES MENTIONED IN THIS BOOK 



Albany, N.Y. 
Allegheny, Pa. 
Annapolis, Md. 
Atlanta, Ga. 
Baltimore, Md. 
Bangor, Me. 
Birmingham, Ala. 
Boston, Mass. 
Bridgeport, Conn. 
Buffalo, N.Y. 
Butte, Mont. 
Cambridge, Mass. 
Camden, N.J. 
Charleston, S.C. 
Chattanooga, Tenn. 



'opulation, 






Population, 


est., 1906 Census of 1900 


170,609 . . . 94,151 


145,240 






129,896 


9,077 






8,402 


109,984 






89,872 


553,669 






508,957 


23,500 






21,850 


45,864 






38,415 


602,278 






560,892 


84,274 






70,996 


381,819 






352,387 


43,624 






30,470 


98,544 






91,886 


84,849 






75,935 


56,317 






55,807 


34,297 






32,490 







APPENDIX 


337 


Population, 


Population, 


est., 1906 


Census of 19U0 


Chicago, 111 2,049,185 . 


. 1,698,575 


Cincinnati, 0. 






345,230 . 


325,902 


Cleveland, 0. 






460,327 . 


381,768 


Columbus, 0. 






145,414 . 


125,560 


Dallas, Tex. 






52,793 . 


42,638 


Denver, Col. 






151,920 . 


133,859 


Detroit, Mich. 






353,535 . 


285,704 


Duluth, Minn. 






67,337 . 


52,969 


Fall River, Mass. 






105,942 . 


101,863 


Galveston, Tex. . 






34,355 . 


37,789 


Gloucester, Mass. 






25,989 . 


26,121 


Grand Rapids, Mich. 






99,794 . 


87,565 


Harrisburg, Pa. . 






55,735 . 


50,167 


Hartford, Conn. . 






95,822 . 


79,850 


Havana, Cuba 






202,395 . 


(1899) 235,981 


Honolulu 






39,306 . 


39,306 


Indianapolis, Lid. 






219,154 . 


169,164 


Jacksonville, Fla. 






36,675 . 


28,429 


Jersey City, N.J. 






237,952 . 


. 206,433 


Kansas City, Mo. 






77,912 . 


163,752 


Knoxville, Tenn. . 






36,051 . 


32,637 


Lawrence, Mass. . 






71,548 . 


62,559 


Los Angeles, Cal. 






250,000 . 


102,479 


Louisville, Ky. 






226,129 . 


. 204,731 


Lowell, Mass. 






95,173 . 


94,969 


Lynn, Mass. 






78,748 . 


68,513 


Manchester, N.H. 






64,703 . 


56,987 


Manila, Philippines 






219,928 . 


(1901) 350,000 


Memphis, Tenn. . 






125,018 . 


102,320 


Milwaukee, Wis. 






317,903 . 


285,315 


Minneapolis, Minn. 






273,825 . 


202,718 


Mobile, Ala. 






42,903 . 


38,469 


Newark, N.J. 






289,634 . 


246,070 


New Bedford, Mass. 






76,746 . 


62,442 


New Haven, Conn. 






121,227 . 


108,027 


New Orleans, La. 






314,146 . 


287,104 


New York, N.Y. 






4,113,043 * . 


. 3,437,202 


Norfolk, Va. 






66,931 . 


46,624 


Oakland, Cal. 






200,000 . 


66,960 


Ogden, Utah 






17,165 . 


16,313 


Omaha, Neb. 






124,167 . 


102,555 


Pater son, N.J. 






112,801 . 


105,171 


Pensacola, Fla. . 






22,256 . 


17,747 


Philadelphia, Pa. 






1,441,735 . 


. 1,293,697 


Pittsburg, Pa. 






375,082 . 


321,616 



338 



APPENDIX 



Portland, Me. 
Portland, Ore. 
Providence, R.I. 
Pueblo, Col. 
Reading, Pa. 
Richmond, Va. 
Rochester, N.Y. 
Rutland, Vt. 
Saginaw, Mich. 
St. Louis, Mo. 
St. Paul, Minn. 
Salt Lake City, Utah 
San Francisco, Cal. 
Savannah, Ga. 
Scran ton, Pa. 
Seattle, Wash. 
Sitka, Alaska 
Spokane, Wash. . 
Springfield, Mass. 
Syracuse, N.Y. 
Tacoma, Wash. . 
Tampa, Fla. 
Toledo, O. . 
Trenton, N.J. . 
Troy* N.Y. . 
Vicksburg, Miss. . 
Washington, D.C 
Wheeling, West Va. 
Wilkesbarre, Pa. . 
Wilmington, Del. 
Wilmington, N.C. 
Worcester, Mass. 



Population, 
est., 1906 

55,167 

109,884 

203,243 

30,824 

91,141 

87,246 

185,703 

11,961 

48,742 

614,320 

203,815 

61,202 

450,000 

68,596 

118,692 

104,169 

1,396 

47,006 

75,836 

118,880 

55,392 

.24,220 

159,980 

86,355 

76,513 

14,834 

307,716 

41,494 

60,121 

85,140 

21,528 

130,078 



Population, 
Census of 1900 

50,145 
90,426 

175,597 
28,157 
78,961 
85,050 

162,608 
11,499 
42,345 

575,238 

163,065 
53,531 

342,782 
54,244 

102,026 

80,671 

1,396 

36,848 

62,059 

108,374 
37.714 
15,839 

131,822 
73,307 
60,651 
14,834 

278,718 
38,878 
51,721 
76,508 
20,976 

118,421 



TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES OF THE WORLD 



1. London, England, est., 1907 . 
Greater London, est., 1907 

2. New York, United States, est., 1906 

3. Paris, France, 1906 .... 

4. Chicago, United States, est., 1906 . 

5. Berlin, Germany, 1905 

6. Vienna, Austria-Hungary, 1907 

7. Tokio, Japan, 1903 . . 



Population 

4,758,218 
7,217,941 
4,113,043 
2,763,393 
2,049,185 
2,040,148 
1,999,912 
1,818,655 



APPENDIX 



339 



Population 

8. Philadelphia, United States, est., 1906 . 1,441,735 

9. St. Petersburg, Russia, 1905 . . . 1,429,000 

10. Moscow, Russia, 1907 . . . . . 1,359,254 

11. Constantinople, Turkey (recent) . . 1,106,000 

12. Calcutta, India, 1901 1,026,987 

13. Buenos Aires, Argentina, est., 1905 . 1,025,653 

14. Osaka, Japan, 1903 995,945 

15. Canton, China, est., 1906 . . . 900,000 

16. Glasgow, Scotland, est., 1907 . . . 847,584 

17. Tientsin, China, est. . . 750,000-900,000 

18. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1906 . . . 811,265 

19. Hamburg, Germany, 1905 . . . 802,793 

20. Bombay, India, est, 1901 . . . 776,006 

21. Warsaw, Russia, 1901 . . . . 756,426 

22. Liverpool, England, est., 1907 . . . 746,144 

23. Budapest, Austria-Hungary, 1900 . . 732,322 

24; Peking, China, est 700,000 

25. St. Louis, United States, est., 1906 . . 649,320 



IMPORTANT FOREIGN CITIES 



Adelaide, South Australia, 1906 
Alexandria, Egypt, 1897 
Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1906 
Antwerp, Belgium, 1906 
Athens, Greece, 1906 
Bangkok, Siam, 1906 
Barcelona, Spain, 1900 
Belfast, Ireland, 1901 
Berlin, Germany, 1905 
Berne, Switzerland, 1907 
Birmingham, England, 1907 
Bombay, India, 1901 
Bordeaux, France, 1906 . 
Brussels, Belgium, 1906 . 
Budapest, Austria-Hungary, 1900 
Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1905 
Cairo, Egypt, 1897 . 
Calcutta, India, 1901 
Callao, Peru, 1906 . 
Canton, China, 1906 
Cape Town, Cape Colony, 1904 
Caracas, Venezuela, 1894 



Population 

174,438 

319,766 

564,186 

304,032 

170,000 

400,000-600,000 

533,000 

349,180 

2,010,148 

73,185 

553,155 

776,006 

251,917 

623,041 

732,322 

1,025,653 

570,062 

1,026,987 

31,000 

900,000 

77,668 

72,429 



340 



APPENDIX 



Christiania, Norway, 1900 
Constantinople, Turkey, 1906 
Copenhagen, Denmark, 1906 . 
Dresden, Germany, 1905 
Dublin, Ireland, 1901 . 
Edinburgh, Scotland, 1907 . 
Geneva, Switzerland, 1907 
Glasgow, Scotland, 1907 
Hague, The, Netherlands, 1906 
Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1901 
Hamburg, Germany, 1905 
Havre. France, 1906 
Hongkong, China, 1906 . 
Jerusalem, Turkey in Asia, 1906 
Johannesburg, Transvaal, 1904 
Kimberley, Cape Colony, 1904 , 
Leipzig, Germanv, 1905 . 
Lima, Peru, 1906 . 
Lisbon, Portugal, 1900 . 
Liverpool, England, 1907 
London, England, 1907 . ' 
London, Greater, 1907 
Lyon, France, 1906 
Madras, India, 1901 
Madrid, Spain, 1900 
Malaga, Spain, 1900 
Manchester, England, 1907 
Marseille, France, 1906 . 
Mecca, Turkey in Asia, 1907 . 
Melbourne, Victoria, 1906 
Mexico, Mexico, 1900 
Milan, Italy, 1901 , 
Moclia, Turkey in Asia, 1900 . 
Montevideo, Uruguay, 1907 . 
Montreal, Canada, 1901 
Moscow, Russia, 1907 
Munich, Germany, 1905 
Naples, Italy, 1901 . 
Odessa, Russia, 1900 
Ottawa, Canada. 1901 
Para, Brazil, 1900 . 
Paris, France, 1906 
Peking. China, 1906 
Prague, Austria-Hungary, 1907 
Quebec, Canada, 1901 
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1906 . 



Population 

227,626 
1,106,000 
426,450 
516,996 
290,636 
345,479 
116,387 
■ 847,584 
248,995 
40,832 
802,793 
132,430 
319,803 
70,000 
158,850 
77,668 
503,672 
130,000 
356,009 
746,144 
4,758,218 
7,217,914 
472,114 
509,346 
539,835 
130,109 
643,148 
517,498 
60,000 
526,400 
344,721 
493,241 
5,000 
309,390 
267,730 
1,359,254 
538,983 
563,540 
449,673 
59,928 
100.000 
2,763,393 
700,000-800,000 
228,645 
68,840 
811,265 



APPENDIX 



341 



Rome, Italy, 1901 . 
St. John, New Brunswick, 1901 
St. Petersburg, Russia, 1905 . 
Santiago, Chile, 1905 
Shanghai, China,. 1906 . 
Singapore, Malay Peninsula, 1901 
Stockholm, Sweden, 1906 
Sydney, New South "Wales, 1901 
Teheran, Persia, 1906 
Tientsin, China, 1906 . 
Tokio, Japan, 1905 . 
Toronto, Canada, 1901 . 
Trieste, Austria-Hungary, 1907 
Valparaiso, Chile, 1907 . 
Vancouver, Canada, 1901 
Venice, Italy, 1901 . 
Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1900 
Victoria, Canada, 1901 . 
Vienna, Austria-Hungary, 1907 
Warsaw, Poland, 1901 . 
Winnepeg, Canada, 1906 
Yokohama, Japan, 1903 . 
Zurich, Switzerland, 1907 



750, 



Population 

462,743 

40,711 

1,429,000 

378,000 

651,000 

228,555 

332,738 

487,900 

280,000 

,000-900,000 

1,818,655 

208,010 

205,136 

175,000 

26,133 

151,840 

29,164 

20,816 

1,999,912 

756,426 

90,153 

326,035 

186,846 



HEIGHT OF A FEW MOUNTAIN PEAKS 



Mt. Everest, Himalaya Mountains, Asia 

Aconcagua, Andes Mountains, Chile . 

Mt. McKinley, Alaskan Mountains, Alaska 

Mt. Logan, Coast Ranges, Canada 

Mt. Elburz, Caucasus Mountains, Eussia 

Orizaba, Sierra Madre, Mexico 

Mt. St. Elias, Coast Ranges, Alaska 

Mt. Blanc, Alps Mountains, France 

Mt. Whitney, Sierra Nevada Mountains, California 

Mt. Rainier, Cascade Mountains, Washington 

Mt. Shasta, Cascade Mountains, California 

Pikes Peak, Rocky Mountains, Colorado 

Mauna Loa, Hawaiian Islands 

Fremont Peak, Rocky Mountains, Wyoming 

Fujiyama, Japan 

Mt. Mitchell, Appalachian Mountains, North Carolina 
Mt. Washington, White Mountains, New Hampshire 
Mt. Marcy, Adirondacks, New York .... 



Feet 
29,002 
22,860 
20,464 
19,539 
18,200 
18,314 
18,025 
15,781 
14,502 
14,363 
14,380 
14,108 
13,675 
13,790 
12,365 
6,711 
6,279 
5,344 



342 



APPENDIX 



SOME OF THE LARGEST RIVERS OF THE WORLD 



Name 




Country 


Length 

in Miles 


Basin Area 


Ocean 


Missouri-M ississippi 


United States 


4,300 


1,257,000 


Atlantic 


Nile . 




Africa 


3,400 


1,273,000 


Atlantic 


Amazon 




South America 


3,300 


2,500,000 


Atlantic 


Ob 




Siberia 


3,200 


1,000,000 


Arctic 


Yangtse Kiang 




China 


3,200 


548,000 


Pacific 


Kongo . 




Africa 


2,900 


1,200,000 


Atlantic 


Lena . 




Siberia 


2,800 


950,000 


Arctic 


Hoang-Ho . 




China 


2,700 


570,000 


Pacific 


Niger . 




Africa 


2,600 


563,300 


Atlantic 


Plata . 




South America 


2,580 


1,200,000 


Atlantic 


Mackenzie . 




Canada 


2,000 


590,000 


Arctic 


Volga . 




Russia 


2,400 


563,300 


Caspian 


St. Lawrence 




North America 


2,200 


519,000 


Atlantic 


Yukon . 




Alaska 


2,000 


440,000 


Pacific 


Indus . 




India 


1,800 


372,700 


Indian 


Danube 




Europe 


1,770 


300,000 


Atlantic 


TEN OF T 


rHE GREAT LAK 


ES OF THE WORLD 


Name 




Length Breadth Area in Square 
in Miles in Miles Miles 


Country 




Caspian 




680 270 


169,000 Russia 




Superior 




390 160 


31,200 L 


. S. and Canada 


Victoria Nyanza 




230 220 


30,000 Africa 




Aral 




225 185 


26,900 Asiatic Russia 


Huron 




250 100 


17,400 L 


. S. and Canada 


Michigan 




335 85 


20,000 U 


nited States 


Tanganyika 




420 50 


12,650 Africa 




Baikal 




397 45 


12,500 Siberia 




Erie 




250 58 


10,000 U 


. S. and C 


anada 


Chad (a shallow 1 


\ke 


which grows . 








very large in i 


he 


rainy season 


about 






and shrinks in 


he 


dry season) 


10,000 Africa 





APPROXIMATE AVERAGE HEIGHT OF SOME PLATEAUS 

Feet 

Tibet . . ... . . 10,000-15,000 

Bolivia 10,000-13,000 

Spain 2,000-3,000 

Mexico . . . . . . . . 5,000-6,000 

Western United States Plateau . . 5,000-6,000 

Brazil . ... 2,000-2,500 



INDEX OF PLACES AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



KEY TO PRONUNCIATION 



Vowel Sounds : a, as in fate ; a, as in senate ; a, as in fat ; a, as in 
final ; a, as in far ; a, as in last ; a, as in fall ; a, as in care ; e, as in 
mete ; e, as in event ; e, as in pen ; e, as in recent ; e, as in term ; I, as in 
pine ; £, as in pin ; i, as in &asm ; o, as in note ; ci, as in obey ; 6, as in 
not ; o, as in beckon ; o, as in for ; m, as in mute ; u, as in tub ; m, as in 
rule ; m, as in furl ; oo, as in food ; oc>, as in foot ; oi, as in oil ; om, as 
in house- 
Consonant Sounds : eft, as in chin ; g, as in <jre£ ; n, as in linger, link ; 
ngr, as in s£h<7 ; N', similar in sound to ng ; th, as in thin ; fh, as in thine ; 
O and K, like the German eft ; //, strongly aspirated, as in hiss. 

The sign ' tells upon which syllable the accent is placed. The numbers 
refer to pages in the book excepting where Fig. is before them, when 
they refer to figures in the book. 



Abyssinia (ab-Ts-sin'I-a), 265. 
Aconcagua (a-kon-ka'gwa), Fig. 

177. 
Acropolis (a-krop'6-lls) , Fig. 201. 
Adelaide (ad'e-lad), 274. 
Adirondacks (ad-i-ron'daks), 1G3. 
Adriatic (ad-re-at'ik), 240. 
Afghanistan (af-gan-is-tan'), Fig. 

203. 
Africa (af'ri-ka), 142, 263. 
Alabama (al-a-ba'ma), 171. 
Alameda, 200. 

Alaska (a-las'ka), 203, Fig. 167-8. 
Albany (al'ba-nl), 162. 
Aleutian (a-lu'shi-an), Fig. 203. 
Alexandria (al-egs-an'drl-a) , 265. 



Algeria (al-je'ri-a) , Fig. 214. 
Allegheny (al'e-ga-ni), 45, 166, 167. 
Amazon (am'a-zon), 216, 218. 
Amsterdam (am'ster-dam), 235. 
Amur (a-moor'), Fig. 203. 
Andes (an'dez), 216, 222. 
Androscoggin (an-dros-kog'in), 158. 
Annapolis (an-nap'6-lls), 168. 
Antarctic (an-tark'tlk) , 143. 
Antilles (an-tll'lez), 215. 
Antwerp (ant'werp), 236. 
Appalachians (ap-pa-la'chi-anz), 

151, 165, 171, 172. 
Arabia (a-ra'bi-a), 252. 
Aral (ar'al), Fig. 203. 
Ararat (ar'a-rat), Fig. 203. 
343 



344 



INDEX 



Arctic (ark'tlk), 143, Figs. 171-2. 
Argentina (ar-jen-te'na), 221. 
Arizona -(ar-I-zo'na), 190. 
Arkansas (ar'kan-sa), 171. 
Asia (a'shl-a), 142, 250. 
Athabasca (ath-a-bas'ka), Fig. 123. 
Athens (ath'enz), 244. 
Atlanta (at-lan'ta), 172. 
Atlantic (at-lan'tik), 68, 144. 
Auburn, Fig. 81. 
Augusta (a-giis'ta), Fig. 125. 
Australia (as-tra'11-a) , 143, 271. 
Austria (as'tri-a), 242. 
Azores (a-zorz'), Fig. 214. 

Baikal (bl'kal), Fig. 203. 
Baltic (bal'tik), 230, 232. 
Baltimore (bal'tl-mor or -mor), 

161, 168. 
Bangkok (Mn-kok'), 26D. 
Bangor (ban'g6r), 158. 
Bakersfield, 200. 
Barcelona (bar-se-lo'na) , 239. 
Baton Kouge (bat'un roozh), Fig. 

140. 
Belfast (bel-fast'), 228. 
Belgium (bel'jl-um), 236. 
Bengal (ben-gal'), Fig. 203. 
Bering Sea (be'rlng), Fig. 203. 
Berlin (ber'lin), 234. 
Bermuda (ber-mu'da), 214. 
Berne (bern), 242. 
Berkeley, 200. 

.Birmingham (ber'nring-um) , 172. 
Big Trees, XVI. 
Birmingham, Eng., 227. 
Black Hills, 105. 
Bogota (bo-go-ta'), Fig. 177. 
Boise (boi'za), Fig. 157. 
Bokhara (bok-a'ra), Fig. 203. 
Bolivia (bo-llv'i-a), Fig. 177. 
Bombay (b5m-ba'), 259. 
Bordeaux (bor-do'), 236, 238. 



Borneo (b6r'ne-o), Fig. 221. 
Boston (bOs'ton), 71, 154, 155, 159. 
Brahmaputra (bra-ma-poo'tra), Fig. 

203. 
Brazil (bra-zil'), 216. 
Bridgeport (brlj'port), 159. 
British Isles (brit'ish), 225. 
Brooklyn (brook'lin), 161. 
Brussels (brus'selz), 233. 
Budapest (boo'd5-p5st), 213. 
Buenos Aires (bo'nusa'riz), 221. 
Buffalo (biif'a-lo), 162, 163, 164. 
Bulgaria (bool-ga'ri-a), 245. 
Butte (but), 195. 

Cairo (ki'ro), Egypt, 265. 
Calcutta (kal-kut'ta), 259. 
California (kal-i-for'nt-a), 193. 
Callao (kal-la'o or kal-ya'6), 222. 
Cambridge (kam'brlj), 154. 
Camden (kam'den), 165. 
Canada (kan'a-da), 152, 205. 
Cancer (kan'ser), Tropic, 128. 
Canton (kan-ton'), 256. 
Cape Town, 270. 

Cape Verde Islands (verd), Fig. 214. 
Capricorn (kap'rl-kdrn) , Tropic, 128. 
Caracas (ka-ra'kas), 221. 
Caribbean (kar-ib-be'an) , 214. 
Cascade Range (kas-kad'), 191. 
Caspian (kas'pi-an), 231. 
Castine (kas-ten'), 70. 
Catalina Island, Fig. 55. 
Catskills (kats'kilz), 163. 
Caucasus (ka'ka-sus), Fig. 183. 
Cayenne (ka-yen' or ki-en'), Fig. 

177. 
Celebes (sel'e-bez), Fig. 221. 
Central America (a-mer'i-ka), 152, 

213. 
Ceylon (se-lon' orsi-lon'), Fig. 203. 
Chad (chad), Fig. 214. 
Champlain (sham-plan'), Fig. 132. 



INDEX 



345 



Charleston (charlz'ton), 177. 
Chattanooga, (chat-ta-noo'ga), 172. 
Chesapeake (ches'a-pek), 161. 
Cheyenne (shi-en'), Fig. 157. 
Chicago (she-ka'go), 181, 185. 
Chico, 114, 215. 
Chile (che'la), 222, 223. 
Chimborazo (chim-bo-ra'zo), 15. 
China (chi'na), 107, 255. 
Christiania (krls-te-a'ne-a), 230. 
Cincinnati (sln-sln-na'ti), 188. 
Cleveland* (klev 'land), 186. 
Coast Ranges, 190. 
Colombia (ko-15m'be-a), 223. 
Colorado (kol-o-ra'do), 191. 
Colorado Canyon, 193. 
Columbia (ko-liiin'bl-a), Dist.,168. 
Columbia River, 200. 
Columbus (ko-lum'bus), 188. 
Colusa, 41. 

Connecticut (kon-net'1-ku.t), 158. 
Constantinople (kon-stan-ti-no'pl) , 

244. 
Copenhagen (ko-pen-ha'gen), 231. 
Cordilleras (k5r-dil'ler-az)", 191, 194. 
Coronado, 76. 
Corinth (kor'inth), 243. 
Corsica (kdr'si-ka), Fig. 183. 
Crete (kret), Fig? 183. 
Cuba (ku'ba), 120, 214. 

Dallas (dal'as), 173. 

Danube (dan'ub), 243, 245. 

Darling River, 273. 

Dead Sea, 59. 

Delaware (del'a-war), 161. 

Denmark (den'inark), 230. 

Denver (den'ver), 194. 

Des Moines (de moin'), Fig. 148. 

Detroit (de-troif), 186. 

Dnieper (ne'per), Fig. 183. 

Dniester (lies' ter), Fig. 183. 

Dresden (drez'den), 234. 



Dublin (dub'lin), Fig. 183. 
Duluth (du-looth'), 186. 

East India (Tn'dl-a), 143, 274. 
Echo Mt., Figs. 20~, 21. 
Ecuador (ek-wa-dor'), 223. 
Edinburgh (ed'in-bur-ro), 227. 
Egypt (e'jipt), 265. 
Elbe (elb), 233. 
Elburz (el-boorz'), Fig. 183. 
England (In'gland), 107, 227. 
Erie (e'ri), Lake, 163. 
Eskimos (es'ki-moz), 130, 209. 
Eurasia (u-ra'shi-a), 139. 
Europe (u'rup), 140, 225. 
Everest (ev'er-est), Mt., 250. 

Fall River, 159. 

Fiji (fe'je), 276. 

Florida (flor'i-da), 175. 

Formosa (f6r-mo'sa), 257. 

France (frans), 236. 

Fresno, 200, bet. pp. 152, 153. 

Galveston (gal'ves-ton), 177. 
Ganges (gan'jez), 259. 
Genesee (jen-e-se'), 164. 
Geneva (je-ne'va), 242. 
Georgia (jor'ji-a), 175. 
Germany (jer'ma-ni), 233. 
Gibraltar (jl-bral'tar), 263. 
Glasgow (glas'go), 227. 
Gloucester (glos'ter), 155, 200. 
Gobi (go'be), 251? 
Golden Gate, X, op. 118, Park 60. 
Grand Rapids, 187. 
Great Britain (brlt'an), 225. 
Great Lakes, 58, 62. 
Great Salt Lake, 59, 197. 
Greece (gres), 243. 
Greenland (gren'land), 209. 
Guam (gwani), Fig. 221. 
Guiana (ge-a'na), 221. 



346 



INDEX 



Guthrie (guth're), Fig. 140. 

Haiti (ha'ti), 215. 
Halifax (hal'e-faks), 208. 
Hamburg (ham'burg), 233. 
Harrisburg (har'is-burg), 166. 
Hartford (hart'ford), 159. 
Havana (ha-van'a), 214. 
Havre (ha'ver), 237. 
Hawaii (ha-wl'e), 276. 
Hawaiian (ha-wl'yan) Islands, 132, 

145, 201, 276. 
Helena (hel'e-na), Fig. 157. 
Himalaya (hlm-a'la-ya) , 250. 
Hoangho (ho-ang-ho'), Fig. 203. 
Holland (hoi'land), 234. 
Hongkong (hong-kong'), 256. 
Honolulu (h5-no-loo'lo5), 276. 
Hudson (hud'son) River, 162. 
Hungary (hun'ga-ri), 242. 
Huron (hu'rgn), Lake, Fig. 148. 

Iceland (Is'land), 231. 

Idaho (I'da-ho), Fig. 157. 

Illinois (il-H-noi' or -noiz'), 181, 182. 

Iloilo (e-lo-e'lo), Fig. 221. 

India (in'di-a), 258. 

Indian, 144, Fig. 268. 

Indiana (In-di-an'a), 182. 

Indianapolis (In-di-an-ap'o-lis), 188. 

Indian Territory, 177. 

Indo-China (In'do chl'na), 260. 

Indus (in'dus), 259. 

Iowa (I'o-wa), 181. 

Ireland (ir'land), 225. 

Irkutsk (Ir-kootsk'), Fig. 203. 

Italy (it'a-11), 240. 

Jacksonville (jak'son-vil), 177. 
Jamaica (ja-ma'ka), 215. 
Japan (ja-pan'), 257. 
Java (ja'va), 274. 
Jersey (jer'z!) City, 161. 



Jerusalem (je-ru'sa-lem), 252. 
Johannesburg (yo-han'nes-burg), 
269. 

Kamchatka (kam-chat'ka), Fig. 203. 

Kansas (kan'sas), 181. 

Kansas City,. 188. 

Katahdin (ka-ta'din), Fig. 125. 

Kennebec (ken-e-bek'), 158. 

Kentucky (ken-tuk'I), 181. 

Key Route, 98. 

Kimberley (kim'ber-li), 270. 

Klondike (klon'dik), 203, 206, Fig. 34. 

Knoxville (noks'vil), 172. 

Kongo (kon'go), 268. 

Korea (ko-re'a), 257. 

Labrador (lab-ra-d6r'); 205. 
Lachine (la-shen') Rapids, 206. 
Ladrone (la-dron'), Fig. 221. 
Lawrence (lar'ens), 159. 
Leipzig (lip'tsiG), 234. 
Lena (le'na), Fig. 203. 
Lima (le'ma), 222. 
Lisbon (llz'bon), 239. 
Liverpool (liv'er-pool), 227. 
Loire (Iwar), Fig. 183. 
London (lun'dun), 226, 228. 
Los Angeles (los an'gel-es), bet. 

pp. 148, 149, 201, Fig. 244. 
Louisiana (ldo-e-ze-a'na), Fig. 140. 
Louisville (loo'Is-vil or loo'i-vil), 188. 
Lowell (lo'gl), 159. 
Luzon (loo-zon'), 275. 
Lynn(lln), 159. 
Lyon (li'9»). 237 - 

Madagascar (mad-a-gas'kar), Fig. 

214. 
Madeira (ma-de'ra), Fig. 214. 
Madrid (ma-drld'), 239. 
Maine (man), 156, 157. 
Malay (ma-W), Fig. 203. 



INDEX 



347 



Manchester (man'ches-ter) , Eng. , 

227. 
Manchester, N.H., 158, 159. 
Manchuria (man-cboo're-a) ,Fig. 203. 
Manila (ma-nll'a), 275. 
Manitoba (man-i-to-ba/), 206. 
Marseille (mar-sal'), 238. 
Maryland (mer'I-land or ma'ri- 

land), 161. 
Marysville, 180. 
Massachusetts (mas-a-chu/sats) , 

Fig. 125. 
Matterhorn (mat'ter-horn), 242. 
Mecca (mek'a), 252. 
Mediterranean (nied-i-ter-ra'ne-an), 

252, 263. 
Mekong (ma-kong'), Fig. 203. 
Melbourne (mel'burn), 274. 
Memphis (niein'fls), 177. 
Merced Falls, Cal., Fig. 49. 
Merrimac (mer'i-mak), 158. 
Mexico (meks'1-ko), 152, 211. 
Mexico City, 213. 
Michigan (niTsh'I-gan), 183. 
Michigan, Lake, 184. 
Milan (mil'an or mi-lan'), 241. 
Milwaukee (nril-wa'ke), 184. 
Mindanao (men-da-na'o), Fig. 221. 
Mindoro (men-d5'ro), Fig. 221. 
Minneapolis (raln-e-ap'o-lts) , 185. 
Minnesota (mm-e-so'ta), 182, 183. 
Mississippi (mis-is-ip'i), 185. 
Mississippi lliver, 33, 45, 51, 55, 

151, 171, 174. 
Missouri (mis-oo'rl), 171, 187. 
Mobile (mo-bel'), 177. 
Mocha (mo'ka), 253. 
Mohammedan (mo-ham'med-an), 

244, 252. 
Mohawk (mo'hak), 163, 164. 
Mongolia (mon-go'll-a), Fig. 203. 
Monongahela (m5-non-ga-he'la),45. 
Montana (mon-ta'na), 195. 



Montenegro (mon-ta-na'gro), 245. 
Montevideo (mon-ta-ve'da-o), 221. 
Montpelier (mont-pe'li-er), Fig. 125. 
Montreal (mont-re-al'), 207, 208. 
Mt. Shasta (shas'taj, Figs. 19, 24. 
Mt. Whitney Kange, 287. 
Mt. Lowe Ry., Fig. 20. 
Moosehead (moos'hed) Lake, 61. 
Morocco (m5-rok'o), Fig. 214. 
Moros (mO'roz), 276. 
Moscow Cmos'ko), 232. 
Munich (mu'nik), 234. 
Murray (mur'ri) River, 272. 

Nantucket (nan-tuk'et), Fig. 125. 
Naples (na'plz), 241." 
Nashville (nash'vil), Fig. 140. 
Nebraska (ne-bras'ka), 181. 
Negritos (ne-gri'toz), 276. 
Netherlands (neth'er-landz), 234. 
Nevada (ne-va'da), 195. 
Newark (nu'ark), 161. 
New Bedford" (bed'ford), 159. 
New Caledonia (kal-e-do'nl-a), Fig. 

221. 
New England (in 'gland), 100, 154. 
Newfoundland (nu'fond-land), 205. 
New Guinea (gin'e), Fig. 221. 
New Hampshire (hamp'shir), 154. 
New Haven, 154, 159. 
New Hebrides (heb'ri-dez), Fig. 221. 
New Jersey (jer'zl), 165. 
New Mexico (meks'I-ko), 190. 
New Orleans (6r'le-anz), 55, 93, 

176, 177. 
New South Wales (walz), 271. 
New York (y ork) , 71, 72, 96, 161, 164. 
New Zealand (ze'land), 274. 
Niagara (ni-ag'a-ra) Falls, 164. 
Nicaragua (ne-ka-ra'gwa) , Fig. 123. 
Niger (ni'jer), 268. 
Nile (nil), 265, 266. 
Norfolk (nor'fok), 168. 



348 



INDEX 



North America (a-nier'I-ka), 138, 151. 
North Carolina (kar-6-li'ua), Tig. 

140. 
North Dakota (da-ko'ta), Fig. 148. 
Norway (nor'wa), 229. 
Nova Scotia (rto'va sko'shl-a), 205. 

Oakland, 98, 118, 200. 
Ocean Park. Cal., Fig. 64. 
Odessa (6-des'sa), 232. 
Ogden (og'den)' 197. 
Ohio (o-hl'o), 48, 182, 183. 
Oklahoma (6k-la-ho'ma), 172, 177. 
Olympia (6-iIm'pI-a), Fig. 157. 
Omaha (o'ma-ha), 187. 
Ontario (on-ta'rl-o), Lake, Fig. 132, 
Oregon (of'e-gon), 203. 
Orinoco (o-ri-no'ko), 216, 220. 
Ottawa (6t'ta-wa), 207. 

Pacific (pa-sif'Ik), 144. 
Palawan (pa-la-wan'), Fig. 221. 
Palestine (pal'es-tln), 252. 
Panama (pan-a-ma') Canal, 201. 
Panama Isthmus (Ts'mus), 138, 213, 

223. 
Panay (pa-ni') , Fig. 221. 
Para (pa-ra'), 218. 
Paramaribo (par-a-mar'i-bo), Fig. 

177. 
Paris (par'is), 237. 
Pasadena, 201. 
Paso Robles, Fig. 42. 
Patagonia (pat-a-go'ni-a) , Fig. 177. 
Paterson (pat'er-son) , 161. 
Peking (pe-king'), 256. 
Pennsylvania (p§n-sll-va'ni-a) , 161, 

165-168. 
Penobscot (pe-nob'scot), 158. 
Pensacola (pen-sa-ko'la), 177. 
Persia (per'shi-a), 252. 
Peru (pe-roo'), 222. 
Petchora (pet-cho'ra), Fig. 183. 



Petaluma, Fig. 84. 

Philadelphia (ffl-a-del'ii-a), 71, 161, 

165, 168. 
Philippine (fll'fp-in), 129, 201, 275. 
Phoenix (fe'niks), Fig. 157.. 
Pierre (per), Fig. 148. 
Pittsburg (pits'burg), 45, 166, 167, 

168. 
Pitt River Falls, Fig. 38. 
Plata (pla'ta), 221. 
Popocatepetl (po-po'kat-a-pa-tl) , 211. 
Playgrounds, XIV. 
Portland (pdrt'land), Me., 155, 160. 
Portland, Oregon, 200. 
Porto llico (por'to re'ko), 215. 
Portugal (por'tu-gal), 238. 
Potomac (po-to'mak), 168. 
Poughkeepsie (po-klp'sl), 162. 
Pribilof (pre-be-lov') Islands, 204. 
Providence (prov'i-dens), 155, 159. 
Pueblo (pweb'lQ), 194. 
Puget (pu'jet) Sound, 200. 
Pyrenees (pir'e-nez), 238. 

Quebec (kwe-bek'), 207. 
Queensland (kwenz'land), 271. 
Quito (ke'to), Fig. 177. 

Rainier (ra'ner), Fig. 157. 

Raleigh (ra'la), Fig. 140. 

Reading (rgd'Ing), 166. 

Rhine (rln), 233. 

Rhode (rod) Island, Fig. 125. 

Richmond (rich'mond), 169. 

Ilio de Janeiro (re'6 da zha-na'e-ro), 

220. 
Rio Grande (re'6 gran'da), 151. 
Rochester (roch'es-ter), 91, 164. 
Rocky Mountains, 151, 191. 
Rome (rom), 240. 
Roumania (roo-ma'ni-a) , 245. 
Russia (rush'a), 231. 
Rutland (rut'land), 156. 



INDEX 



349 



Sacramento (siik-ra-men't6), 200, 

Figs. 41, 157. 
Saginaw (sag'in-a), 187. 
Sahara (sa-har'a), 263. 
St. Anthony (an'tho-nl) Falls, 186. 
St. Helena (Mt.), Fig. 71. 
St. Lawrence (la/rens), 58, 151,207. 
St. Louis (loo'is or loo'I), 45, 187. 
St. Paul, 94, 185. 

St. Petersburg (pe'terz-burg), 232. 
Salinas River, Fig. 42. 
Salt Lake City, 197. 
Samar (sa-mar'), Fig. 221. 
Samoa (sa-mo'a), 276. 
San Bernardino, op. p. 153. 
San Diego, 201, op. p. 153. 
San Francisco (san fran-sis'ko), 72, 

194, 200, 201, op. p. 118, Fig. 83. 
San Jose, 200, bet. pp. 152, 153. 
San Pedro, Fig. 56. 
Santa Barbara, 201. 
Santa Fe (san'ta fa ), Fig. 157. 
Santiago (san-te-a'gd), 222. 
Sardinia (sar-dln'i-a), Fig. 183. 
Savannah (sa-van'a), 177. 
Scotland (skot'land), 226. 
Scranton (skran'ton), 167. 
Seattle (se-at'l), 200. 
Shanghai (shang-ha'i), 256. 
Shasta (shas'ta), Figs. 19, 124. 
Siam (si-am' or se-am'), 260. 
Siberia (sl-be'rl-a) t 254. 
Sierra Madre, Fig. 123. 
Sierra Nevada (ne-va'da), 21, 190. 

Fig. 16. 
Singapore (sln-ga-por'), 260. 
South America (a-mer'I-ka) , 138, 216, 
South Dakota (da-ko'ta), Fig. 148. 
Spain (span), 107, 238. 
Spokane (spo-kan'.), 200. 
Springfield (spring'feld), 159. 
State Inst., Fig. 82, p. 108. 
Stockholm (stok'holm), 230. 
Stockton, 200, bet. pp. 152, 153. 



Sucre (soo'kre), Fig. 177. 

Sudan (soo-dan'), 268. 

Suez (soo-ez'), 266. 

Sulu (sod-loo'), 276. 

Sumatra (sod-ma'tra), Fig. 221. 

Superior (su.-pe'ri-er) , Lake, 162, 182. 

Sweden (swe'den), 229. 

Switzerland (swit'zer-land) , 142,241. 

Sydney (sid'ni), 274. 

Syracuse (sir'a-kus), 164. 

Tacoma (ta-ko'ma), 200. 
Tagalogs (ta-ga'16gz), 276. 
Tahoe (Lake), 66. 
Tallahassee (tal-a-has'e), Fig. 140. 
Tampa (tam'pa), 177. 
Tanganyika (tan-gan-ye'ka), Fig. 

214. 
Tasmania (taz-ma'n:-a), 274. 
Tennessee (ten-nes-se'), Fig. 140. 
Texas (teks'as), 171, 173. 
Thames (temz), 226. 
The Hague (hag), 235. 
Tibet (ti-bet'), or tib'et'), Fig. 203. 
Tientsin (te-en'tsen) , 256. 
Tierra del Fuego (te-er'ra del 

fwa'go), Fig. 177. 
Timbuktu (tim-book'too), Fig. 214. 
Titicaca (tit-e-ka'ka), Fig. 177. 
Tokio (to'ke-o), 258. 
Toledo (to-le'do), 187. 
Topeka (to-pe'ka), Fig. 148. 
Toronto (to-ron'to), 208. 
Trenton (tren'ton), 165. 
Trieste (tre-esf), Fig. 183. 
Trinidad (trin-I-dad'), 221. 
Tripoli (trip'o-11), Fig. 214. 
Troy, 164. 

Truckee, Cal., Fig. 31. • 
Tunis (tu'nls), Fig. 214. 
Turkestan (toor'kls-tan'), Fig. 203. 
Turkey (tur'ki), 107, 244. 

United States, 29, 104, 136, 152, 153, 
262, op. p. 179, Fig. 124. 



350 



INDEX 



Ural (u'ral) Mountains, 231, 254. 
Uruguay (od-roo-gwi' or u'rod-gwa), 

221. 
Utah (u'ta or u'ta), 195, Fig. 164. 

Valparaiso (val-pa-ri'so) , 222. 

Venezuela (ven-e-zwe'la), 220. 

Venice (ven'Is), 240. 

Vera Cruz (va'ra kroos), 213. 

Vermont (ver-inont'), 156. 

Vesuvius (ve-su'vi-us) , 133, 241. 

Vicksburg, 177. 

Victoria (vlk-to'ri-a), Australia, 271. 

Victoria, Canada, 208. 

Victoria Nyanza (hi-an'za), Fig. 214. 

Vienna (ve-en'a), 243. 

Virginia (ver-jln'f-a), 169. 

Vistula (vis'tu-la), Fig. 183. 

Volga (vol'p), 231. 

Wales (walz), 226. 
Warsaw (war'sa), Fig. 183. 
Washington (wosh'ing-ton) (city), 
101, 105, 106, 168, 169." 



Washington (state), 200. 
West Indies (in'dez), 213. 
West Virginia (ver-jin'f-a), 169. 
Wheeling (hwel'ing), 169. 
Wilkes Barre (wilks'bar-i), 167. 
Wilmington (wil'ming-ton), Del., 

165. 
Wilmington, N.C., 177. 
Winnipeg (win'i-peg), 208. 
Wisconsin (wTs-kon'sin), 182. 
Worcester (woos'ter), 159. 
Wyoming (wi-o'ming), Fig. 157. 

Yang-tse-Kiang (yang-tse-kl-ang'), 

Fig. 203. 
Yellowstone (yel'6-ston),193,Fig. 159. 
Yenesei (yen-e-sa'e), Fig. 203. 
Yokohama (yo-ko-ha'ma), 258. 
Yosemite (yo-sem'i-te), 21, 193, 

Figs. 18, 25, 158. 
Yucatan (yoo-ka-tan'), Fig. 123. 
Yukon (yoo'kon), 151, 203. 

Zurich (tsu'riK.), 242. 




Fig. 268. 
The home of a typical Piute Indian family. 



Mf 27 1910 



